SHARP
POCKET COMPUTER
MODEL
PC-G850V(S)
USERS GUIDE
Copyright © 2018 Jack W. Hsu
Version 3.0, 09/2018
All rights reserved. The manual may be freely used as a PDF for non-commercial purposes
and posted on the internet.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Table of Contents
i
INTRODUCTION
The Pocket PC Sharp PC-G850V(S) is the latest model of a long line of pocket computers
that originated in the late 1970s. At the same time, it stands out from the other models
because of its special features. As there are no direct ancestors to the G850 series, the basic
functionality of the PC-E200 / PC-E220 / PC-G815 was used as a foundation. Functions from
the PC-1600 and PC-E500S were added. Additionally, some mathematical functions from the
PC-14xx models were introduced.
A C compiler / interpreter has been integrated in the PC-G850V(S). This is most likely to be
compared with the C-interpreter of the Casio Z-1GR. In addition, an integrated CASL
assembler and COMET environment have been included.
This guide is made for both the Sharp G850V and Sharp G850VS. The difference between
the two models is the slightly lower weight (10g) and the location of the operating system of
the VS in flash memory. However, since there never was an update for the operating system,
this property is irrelevant. This manual should also apply for the G850 and G850S, however,
it has not been verified.
Unfortunately, Sharp's G models were only distributed within Japan, so they are hard to find
in the rest of the world and no official non-Japanese documentation is available.
This manual was developed to address the lack of English documentation for this computer.
It is based on the German translation of the official Japanese version of the Sharp PC-
G850V(S) manual by Jörg Wrabetz. Additional information from the official Japanese
version of the manual, the description of the 11-pin interface by Ton Stahl (Appendix A), and
the Sharp PC-E500 manual was added for clarification. Thanks to hpmuseum.org forum
members SMP, toml_12953, and rprosperi for catching errors and making suggestions for
clarifying. Thanks to forplus for additional programming examples. This manual was NOT
created by the SHARP CORPORATION and should not be considered official. Distribution
of this manual is subject to the friendly (not yet available) permission from Sharp.
For errors in the text, in the technical descriptions, etc., as well as their consequences, no
liability can be accepted.
Jack W. Hsu
jwhsu01@yahoo.com
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
ii
BASIC FEATURES OF THE SHARP PC-G850V(S):
1. Built-in assembler: The calculator is equipped with a built-in assembler which allows
you to write programs in Z80 machine language.
2. Programming in Basic: The G850V(S) has a powerful basic language similar to the PC-
1600 and has been enhanced with elements of the PC-E500S.
3. Programming in C: To do this, the computer has a built-in compiler to execute simple C
programs.
4. Programming in CASL: CASL is an assembler language for a COMET virtual machine.
This virtual machine and assembler system was created by the Japanese Ministry of
Education to provide students and students with consistent training without the need for
special hardware.
5. Scientific calculations: Simple and easy execution of scientific calculations.
6. RAM disk: A part of the internal memory can be used like a RAM disk to store programs
and data.
7. Serial interface: This makes it possible to exchange programs and data between different
pocket computers or even a PC.
8. Connecting programmable PIC microcontrollers.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Table of Contents
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW
1
1.1. Precautions...................................................................................................................1
1.2. Using the PC-G850V(S) for the First Time ......................................................................3
1.2.1. Replacing the Batteries ............................................................................................... 5
1.2.2. When to Change the Batteries ................................................................................... 5
1.3. Device Overview ...........................................................................................................5
2. BASIC FUNCTIONS AND MODES
7
2.1. Switching on the Computer ...........................................................................................7
2.2. Automatic Shutdown ....................................................................................................7
2.3. Setting the Contrast ......................................................................................................7
2.4. The SHARP PC-G850 Modes ...........................................................................................8
Mode Switching ............................................................................................................................... 8
2.5. Basic Operation ............................................................................................................9
Cursor control ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.6. The Display ................................................................................................................. 10
3. MANUAL CALCULATIONS
15
3.1. Keypad Operation ....................................................................................................... 15
3.1.1. Keys for Mathematical Operations ........................................................................... 15
ANS ................................................................................................................................................ 15
EXP, 10x and ex ............................................................................................................................. 16
DIGIT .............................................................................................................................................. 16
USING ............................................................................................................................................ 16
MDF (Modification Function) ........................................................................................................ 17
Sign Change ................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2. Memory Operations .................................................................................................... 17
3.3. Calculations with Constants ........................................................................................ 18
Using constants ............................................................................................................................. 18
Viewing constants ......................................................................................................................... 18
Delete the last constant ................................................................................................................ 18
3.4. Priority in Direct Input Calculations ............................................................................. 19
3.5. Base Conversion (BASE-n) ........................................................................................... 19
3.5.1. Value Range .............................................................................................................. 20
3.5.2. Input Number ........................................................................................................... 21
3.5.3. Base Conversion ....................................................................................................... 21
3.5.4. Two’s Complement ................................................................................................... 22
3.5.5. Calcuations................................................................................................................ 22
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4. STATISTICS MODE
25
4.1. Entering STAT Mode.................................................................................................... 25
4.2. One-Variable (Univariate) Statistics ............................................................................. 25
4.2.1. Data Entry ................................................................................................................. 26
4.2.2. Univariate Statistical Calculations ............................................................................ 27
4.2.3. Correcting Errors ...................................................................................................... 27
4.2.4. Printing ..................................................................................................................... 28
4.3. Two-Variable (Bivariate) Statistics ............................................................................... 29
4.3.1. Bivariate Statistical Calculations .............................................................................. 29
4.4. Calculation Storage ..................................................................................................... 32
5. PROGRAM OPERATION
33
5.1. Constants ................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.1. String Constants ....................................................................................................... 33
5.1.2. Hexadecimal ............................................................................................................. 33
5.2. Variables .................................................................................................................... 33
5.2.1. Types of Variables .................................................................................................... 34
5.2.2. Fixed Variables ......................................................................................................... 34
5.2.3. Simple Variables ....................................................................................................... 35
5.2.4. Array Variables ......................................................................................................... 35
5.3. Program and Data Files ............................................................................................... 37
5.3.1. File Names ................................................................................................................ 38
5.3.2. File Name Extensions ............................................................................................... 38
5.4. Expressions ................................................................................................................. 38
5.4.1. Numeric Operators ................................................................................................... 38
5.4.2. String Expressions .................................................................................................... 39
5.4.3. Relational Expressions .............................................................................................. 39
5.4.4. Logical Expressions ................................................................................................... 40
5.4.5. Parenthesis and Operator Precedence .................................................................... 41
6. PROGRAMMING IN BASIC
43
6.1. Programs .................................................................................................................... 43
6.1.1. BASIC Statements ..................................................................................................... 43
6.1.2. Line Numbers ........................................................................................................... 43
6.1.3. Labeled Programs ..................................................................................................... 43
6.2. BASIC Commands ........................................................................................................ 44
6.2.1. Direct Commands ..................................................................................................... 44
6.2.2. Modes (Operating Modes) ....................................................................................... 45
6.3. Beginning to Program ................................................................................................. 45
6.3.1. Entering and Running a Program ............................................................................. 45
6.3.2. Editing a Program ..................................................................................................... 46
6.3.3. Using Variables in Programming .............................................................................. 48
6.3.4. More Complex Programming ................................................................................... 50
6.4. Debugging .................................................................................................................. 51
6.4.1. Trace Mode .............................................................................................................. 51
6.4.2. Debugging Procedures ............................................................................................. 52
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7. TEXT MODE
55
7.1. Functions in TEXT mode .............................................................................................. 55
7.1.1. Editing Programs and Files........................................................................................ 56
7.2. TEXT Editor ................................................................................................................. 57
A
Auto ........................................................................................................................................ 57
L
List .......................................................................................................................................... 57
R
Renumber............................................................................................................................... 57
D
Delete ..................................................................................................................................... 58
C
Copy ....................................................................................................................................... 58
S
Search ..................................................................................................................................... 58
E
Replace ................................................................................................................................... 58
7.2.1. The .TAB. Key .......................................................................................................... 59
7.3. Delete TEXT Memory (Del) .......................................................................................... 59
7.4. Print TEXT Program (Print) .......................................................................................... 59
7.5. Serial Input/Output (SIO) ............................................................................................ 60
7.5.1. Set I/O Parameters (Format) .................................................................................... 60
Communication Parameters ......................................................................................................... 61
7.5.2. Send Program (Save)................................................................................................. 62
7.5.3. Receive Program (Load) ............................................................................................ 62
7.5.4. Printing ..................................................................................................................... 62
7.6. Program File Management (File) .................................................................................. 63
7.6.1. Save TEXT Program (Save) ........................................................................................ 63
7.6.2. Load TEXT Program (Load) ........................................................................................ 64
7.6.3. Delete Program File (Kill) .......................................................................................... 64
7.6.4. List File Names (Files)................................................................................................ 65
7.6.5. About TEXT files ........................................................................................................ 65
7.7. BASIC Converter (Basic) ............................................................................................... 65
7.7.1. Conversion of TEXT and BASIC Programs ................................................................. 66
7.7.2. Out of Memory when Using the TEXT/BASIC Converter .......................................... 66
7.8. Data File Management (RFILE) ..................................................................................... 67
7.8.1. Create File (Init) ........................................................................................................ 67
7.8.2. Load Data File (load) ................................................................................................. 68
7.8.3. Delete Data File (Kill) ................................................................................................ 68
7.8.4. List Data Files (Files) .................................................................................................. 69
7.8.5. Save Data File (Save) ................................................................................................. 69
8. THE C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
71
8.1. Properties of the C Programming Language ................................................................. 71
8.2. The C Compiler ........................................................................................................... 72
8.2.1. Call the Text Editor: .................................................................................................. 73
8.2.2. Enter the C Source Program: .................................................................................... 73
8.2.3. Compile the Source Program .................................................................................... 73
8.2.4. Compile ..................................................................................................................... 73
8.2.5. Running the Program ................................................................................................ 74
8.3. Trace .......................................................................................................................... 74
8.3.1. Start TRACE Mode..................................................................................................... 74
Functions in Pause Mode: ............................................................................................................. 75
8.4. Redirecting Screen Output to the Printer ..................................................................... 75
8.5. Functional Diagram of the C Compiler .......................................................................... 76
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8.6. C Programming Basics ................................................................................................. 77
8.6.1. Formatting Options for Output (i.e. printf) .............................................................. 77
8.6.2. Variable Types .......................................................................................................... 77
Variable Names ............................................................................................................................ 77
8.6.3. Operators ................................................................................................................. 78
Comparison Operators ................................................................................................................. 78
Arithmetic Operators ................................................................................................................... 78
Assignment Operators .................................................................................................................. 78
Increment / Decrement Operators .............................................................................................. 78
Logical Operators ......................................................................................................................... 78
Bitwise Operators ......................................................................................................................... 79
Shift Operators ............................................................................................................................. 79
Keywords ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Escape Control Characters ........................................................................................................... 79
8.7. C SYNTAX .................................................................................................................... 80
8.7.1. Compound Instructions ............................................................................................ 80
8.7.2. Conditional Jumps .................................................................................................... 80
If…else .......................................................................................................................................... 80
switch…case ................................................................................................................................. 80
8.7.3. Loops ........................................................................................................................ 81
for ................................................................................................................................................. 81
while ............................................................................................................................................. 81
do-while ........................................................................................................................................ 81
8.7.4. Unconditional Jumps ................................................................................................ 81
goto .............................................................................................................................................. 81
continue ....................................................................................................................................... 81
break ............................................................................................................................................. 82
return ........................................................................................................................................... 82
8.8. Storage Classes ........................................................................................................... 82
8.9. Arrays ......................................................................................................................... 82
8.10. Structures ................................................................................................................... 83
8.11. Compiler Runtime Options .......................................................................................... 84
#include “file” ............................................................................................................................... 84
#define name [value] ................................................................................................................... 84
#if ... #elif ... #else ... #endif .......................................................................................................... 84
#ifdef name ... #endif ................................................................................................................... 84
#ifndef name ... #endif ................................................................................................................. 84
8.12. Library Functions ........................................................................................................ 85
8.12.1. Standard I/O Functions ............................................................................................ 85
getc, getchar, fgetc ....................................................................................................................... 85
gets, fgets ..................................................................................................................................... 86
scanf, fscanf, sscanf ...................................................................................................................... 86
putc, putchar, fputc ...................................................................................................................... 88
puts, fputs..................................................................................................................................... 88
printf, fprintf, sprintf .................................................................................................................... 88
fflush ............................................................................................................................................. 90
clearerr ......................................................................................................................................... 90
8.12.2. Character Functions ................................................................................................. 91
isalnum, isalpha, iscntrl, isdigit, isgraph, islower, isprint, ispunct, isspace, isupper, isxdigit ....... 91
tolower, toupper .......................................................................................................................... 91
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8.12.3. String Functions ........................................................................................................ 92
strcat ............................................................................................................................................. 92
strchr ............................................................................................................................................. 92
strcmp ........................................................................................................................................... 92
strcpy ............................................................................................................................................. 92
strlen ............................................................................................................................................. 92
8.12.4. Memory Functions .................................................................................................... 93
calloc ............................................................................................................................................. 93
malloc ............................................................................................................................................ 93
free ................................................................................................................................................ 93
8.12.5. Mathematical Functions ........................................................................................... 93
abs ................................................................................................................................................. 93
asin, acos, atan .............................................................................................................................. 94
asinh, acosh, atanh ........................................................................................................................ 94
exp ................................................................................................................................................. 94
log, log10 ....................................................................................................................................... 94
pow ................................................................................................................................................ 94
sin, cos, tan .................................................................................................................................... 95
sinh, cosh, tanh ............................................................................................................................. 95
sqrt ................................................................................................................................................ 95
8.13. Hardware Interface Functions ..................................................................................... 95
8.13.1. Mini I/O Functions .................................................................................................... 95
miniget .......................................................................................................................................... 95
miniput .......................................................................................................................................... 95
8.13.2. 8-bit PIO Control via the 11-pin Interface ................................................................ 96
fclose ............................................................................................................................................. 96
fopen ............................................................................................................................................. 96
pioget ............................................................................................................................................ 96
pioput ............................................................................................................................................ 96
pioset ............................................................................................................................................. 96
8.13.3. SIO (RS-232C) Control via the 11-pin Interface ........................................................ 97
fclose ............................................................................................................................................. 97
fopen ............................................................................................................................................. 97
8.13.4. Buffer / Communications Controller ........................................................................ 97
feof ................................................................................................................................................ 97
8.13.5. I/O port functions ..................................................................................................... 97
inport ............................................................................................................................................. 97
outport .......................................................................................................................................... 98
8.13.6. Memory Functions / Program Call ............................................................................ 98
call ................................................................................................................................................. 98
peek ............................................................................................................................................... 98
poke ............................................................................................................................................... 98
8.13.7. Datafile Functions ..................................................................................................... 98
fclose ............................................................................................................................................. 98
feof ................................................................................................................................................ 98
flof ................................................................................................................................................. 99
fopen ............................................................................................................................................. 99
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8.13.8. Graphic Functions .................................................................................................... 99
circle ............................................................................................................................................. 99
gcursor .......................................................................................................................................... 99
gprint .......................................................................................................................................... 100
line .............................................................................................................................................. 100
paint ........................................................................................................................................... 100
point ........................................................................................................................................... 100
preset ......................................................................................................................................... 100
pset ............................................................................................................................................. 101
8.14. Other Functions ........................................................................................................ 101
abort, exit ................................................................................................................................... 101
angle ........................................................................................................................................... 101
breakpt ....................................................................................................................................... 101
clrscr ........................................................................................................................................... 101
getch ........................................................................................................................................... 102
gotoxy ......................................................................................................................................... 102
kbhit............................................................................................................................................ 102
8.15. Error Messages ......................................................................................................... 102
8.15.1. Compiler Error Messages ....................................................................................... 102
8.15.2. Run-Time Error Messages ...................................................................................... 104
9. CASL
105
9.1. The CASL assembler .................................................................................................. 105
9.2. CASL mode Functions ................................................................................................ 105
9.3. CASL Programming Procedure ................................................................................... 106
9.4. Entering / Editing the Source Program ....................................................................... 108
9.4.1. Line Format ............................................................................................................ 108
9.5. The CASL Assembler .................................................................................................. 109
9.5.1. CASL Assembler Log ............................................................................................... 110
9.5.2. CASL Assembler Error Messages ............................................................................ 111
9.6. Simulation ................................................................................................................ 111
9.6.1. Normal Execution ................................................................................................... 112
9.6.2. Trace Mode ............................................................................................................ 112
9.6.3. Trace Error Messages ............................................................................................. 113
9.7. Monitor .................................................................................................................... 113
9.7.1. Display Register Contents ...................................................................................... 113
9.7.2. Set Registers ........................................................................................................... 114
9.7.3. Display Object Code ............................................................................................... 114
9.8. Sample CASL Program ............................................................................................... 116
9.8.1. Operation Example:................................................................................................ 116
9.8.2. Trace Example ........................................................................................................ 119
9.9. COMET Specification ................................................................................................. 120
9.10. COMET Architecture ................................................................................................. 121
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9.11. Command Summary .................................................................................................. 122
9.11.1. Registers and Abbreviations ................................................................................... 123
9.11.2. Commands .............................................................................................................. 123
LD ................................................................................................................................................ 123
ST ................................................................................................................................................. 123
LEA ............................................................................................................................................... 123
ADD ............................................................................................................................................. 123
SUB .............................................................................................................................................. 123
AND, OR, EOR .............................................................................................................................. 124
CPA .............................................................................................................................................. 124
JPZ, JMI, JNZ, JZE ......................................................................................................................... 124
JMP .............................................................................................................................................. 124
SLA, SRA ....................................................................................................................................... 124
SSL, SLR ........................................................................................................................................ 125
PUSH ............................................................................................................................................ 125
POP .............................................................................................................................................. 125
CALL ............................................................................................................................................. 125
RET............................................................................................................................................... 125
9.11.3. Assembler Syntax .................................................................................................... 125
START .......................................................................................................................................... 126
END .............................................................................................................................................. 126
DC ................................................................................................................................................ 126
DS ................................................................................................................................................ 126
9.11.4. Macro Commands................................................................................................... 127
IN ................................................................................................................................................. 127
OUT ............................................................................................................................................. 127
EXIT .............................................................................................................................................. 127
WRITE .......................................................................................................................................... 127
9.11.5. Sample Program ..................................................................................................... 127
10. MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
129
10.1. Using the Monitor ..................................................................................................... 129
10.2. Monitor Commands .................................................................................................. 130
USER Set User Memory ............................................................................................................ 130
S
Update Memory ............................................................................................................. 131
D
Display Memory .............................................................................................................. 132
E
Edit Memory ................................................................................................................... 133
P
Toggle Printer ................................................................................................................. 134
G
GOSUB ............................................................................................................................ 134
R
Receive data via the serial interface ............................................................................... 135
W
Send data via the serial interface ................................................................................... 135
BP
Set Breakpoint ................................................................................................................ 135
10.3. Error Messages in Monitor Mode .............................................................................. 136
11. ASSEMBLER
137
11.1. Programming with the Assembler ............................................................................. 137
11.1.1. Example Program .................................................................................................... 138
11.1.2. Assign Machine Code Area ..................................................................................... 139
11.1.3. Assemble Source Program ...................................................................................... 139
11.1.4. Check Generated Object Program .......................................................................... 140
11.1.5. Run Object (Machine Code) Program ..................................................................... 140
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11.2. Coding / Editing a Source Program............................................................................. 141
11.2.1. Source Program Format ......................................................................................... 141
11.2.2. Line Format (Instructions) ...................................................................................... 141
11.2.3. Deleting a Source Program..................................................................................... 144
11.2.4. Entering a Source Program .................................................................................... 144
11.3. Assembler Functions ................................................................................................. 145
11.3.1. Assembler Menu .................................................................................................... 145
11.3.2. Assembling ............................................................................................................. 146
Successful Assembly ................................................................................................................... 146
Unsuccessful Assembly ............................................................................................................... 146
Displaying the Object Code ........................................................................................................ 147
Printing the Assembler Log ........................................................................................................ 149
Sending the Assembler Log to the Serial Interface (SIO) ............................................................ 149
11.4. Assembler Pseudo-Instructions ................................................................................. 150
ORG
Beginning ....................................................................................................................... 150
DEFB / DB / DEFM / DM Define Byte / Message ...................................................................... 151
DEFW / DW Define Word .......................................................................................................... 151
DEFS / DS
Define Memory ..................................................................................................... 152
EQU
Equal .............................................................................................................................. 152
END
End ................................................................................................................................. 153
11.5. Error Messages ......................................................................................................... 153
12. PIC
155
12.1. Defining the Machine Language Area ........................................................................ 155
12.2. Creating / Editing a Source Program .......................................................................... 155
12.3. PIC Assembler ........................................................................................................... 157
12.3.1. PIC Assembler Directives ........................................................................................ 157
__CONFIG Configuration .......................................................................................................... 157
ORG
Set Start Address .................................................................................................... 158
EQU
Define a Constant ................................................................................................... 158
DW
Define a Word ......................................................................................................... 158
#INCLUDE Insert a File ............................................................................................................. 158
12.3.2. PIC Assembler Error Messages ............................................................................... 159
12.4. PIC Loader ................................................................................................................ 160
12.4.1. PIC Loader Error Messages ..................................................................................... 160
13. BASIC COMMAND GLOSSARY
161
13.1. Scientific and Mathematical Functions ...................................................................... 162
ABS
|x| ............................................................................................................................. 162
ACS
cos-1 x ....................................................................................................................... 163
AHC
cosh-1 x ..................................................................................................................... 163
AHS
sinh-1 x ..................................................................................................................... 163
AHT
tanh-1 x ..................................................................................................................... 164
ASN
sin-1 x ........................................................................................................................ 164
ATN
tan-1 x ....................................................................................................................... 165
COS
cos x .......................................................................................................................... 166
CUB
x3 .............................................................................................................................. 166
CUR
√x
3
............................................................................................................................. 166
DEG
dd°mm’ss” → ddd.dddd° .......................................................................................... 167
DMS
ddd.dddd° → dd°mm’ss” .......................................................................................... 168
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EXP
ex ............................................................................................................................... 168
FACT
n! ............................................................................................................................... 169
FIX
................................................................................................................................... 169
HCS
cosh x ........................................................................................................................ 169
HSN
sinh x ......................................................................................................................... 169
HTN
tanh x ........................................................................................................................ 170
INT
................................................................................................................................... 170
LN
loge x ......................................................................................................................... 170
LOG
log10 x........................................................................................................................ 171
NCR
nCr = n! r! (n-r)!
⁄
........................................................................................................ 171
NPR
nPr = n! (n-r)!
⁄
........................................................................................................... 171
PI
π ................................................................................................................................ 171
POL
(x, y) → (r, θ) ............................................................................................................ 172
^ (Power) yx ............................................................................................................................... 172
RCP
1 x
⁄ ............................................................................................................................ 172
REC
(r, θ) → (x, y) ............................................................................................................ 173
SGN
................................................................................................................................... 173
SIN
sin x ........................................................................................................................... 174
SQR
√x .............................................................................................................................. 174
SQU
x2 ............................................................................................................................... 174
TAN
tan x ........................................................................................................................... 175
TEN
10x ............................................................................................................................. 175
&H
................................................................................................................................... 175
13.2. General Commands ................................................................................................... 177
ASC .............................................................................................................................................. 177
AUTO ........................................................................................................................................... 178
BEEP ............................................................................................................................................ 178
BLOAD ......................................................................................................................................... 179
BLOAD M ..................................................................................................................................... 179
BLOAD?........................................................................................................................................ 180
BSAVE .......................................................................................................................................... 180
BSAVE M ...................................................................................................................................... 181
CALL ............................................................................................................................................. 181
CHR$ ............................................................................................................................................ 182
CIRCLE .......................................................................................................................................... 182
CLEAR .......................................................................................................................................... 184
CLOSE .......................................................................................................................................... 185
CLS ............................................................................................................................................... 185
CONT ........................................................................................................................................... 186
DATA ............................................................................................................................................ 187
DEGREE ........................................................................................................................................ 188
DELETE ......................................................................................................................................... 188
DIM .............................................................................................................................................. 189
END .............................................................................................................................................. 190
EOF .............................................................................................................................................. 190
ERASE .......................................................................................................................................... 191
FILES ............................................................................................................................................ 191
FOR … NEXT ................................................................................................................................. 192
FRE ............................................................................................................................................... 193
GCURSOR ..................................................................................................................................... 194
GOSUB … RETURN ....................................................................................................................... 195
GOTO ........................................................................................................................................... 196
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GPRINT........................................................................................................................................ 197
GRAD .......................................................................................................................................... 198
HEX$ ........................................................................................................................................... 199
IF … THEN … ELSE ........................................................................................................................ 199
IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF ............................................................................................................... 201
INKEY$ ........................................................................................................................................ 202
INPUT .......................................................................................................................................... 203
INPUT# ........................................................................................................................................ 204
KILL ............................................................................................................................................. 205
LCOPY ......................................................................................................................................... 205
LEFT$ .......................................................................................................................................... 206
LEN.............................................................................................................................................. 207
LET .............................................................................................................................................. 207
LFILES .......................................................................................................................................... 208
LINE............................................................................................................................................. 208
LIST ............................................................................................................................................. 210
LLIST ............................................................................................................................................ 211
LNINPUT# ................................................................................................................................... 212
LOAD ........................................................................................................................................... 212
LOCATE ....................................................................................................................................... 213
LOF .............................................................................................................................................. 214
LPRINT ........................................................................................................................................ 214
MID$ ........................................................................................................................................... 215
MON ........................................................................................................................................... 215
NEW ............................................................................................................................................ 215
ON…GOSUB ................................................................................................................................ 216
ON…GOTO .................................................................................................................................. 217
OPEN........................................................................................................................................... 218
PAINT .......................................................................................................................................... 219
PASS ............................................................................................................................................ 219
PEEK ............................................................................................................................................ 220
POINT.......................................................................................................................................... 220
POKE ........................................................................................................................................... 221
PRESET ........................................................................................................................................ 221
PRINT .......................................................................................................................................... 222
PRINT# ........................................................................................................................................ 223
PSET ............................................................................................................................................ 223
RADIAN ....................................................................................................................................... 224
RANDOMIZE ............................................................................................................................... 224
READ ........................................................................................................................................... 225
REM (‘) ........................................................................................................................................ 225
RENUM ....................................................................................................................................... 226
REPEAT … UNTIL ......................................................................................................................... 226
RESTORE ..................................................................................................................................... 227
RIGHT$ ........................................................................................................................................ 228
RND ............................................................................................................................................. 229
RUN ............................................................................................................................................ 230
SAVE ........................................................................................................................................... 230
STOP ........................................................................................................................................... 231
STR$ ............................................................................................................................................ 231
SWITCH … CASE … DEFAULT … ENDSWITCH ............................................................................... 232
TRON / TROFF ............................................................................................................................. 233
USING ......................................................................................................................................... 234
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Table of Contents
xiii
VAL .............................................................................................................................................. 235
VDEG ........................................................................................................................................... 236
WAIT ............................................................................................................................................ 236
WHILE … WEND ........................................................................................................................... 237
13.3. I/O Commands .......................................................................................................... 238
CLOSE .......................................................................................................................................... 238
INP ............................................................................................................................................... 238
LLIST ............................................................................................................................................ 238
LPRINT ......................................................................................................................................... 239
OPEN ........................................................................................................................................... 239
OUT ............................................................................................................................................. 240
PIOGET......................................................................................................................................... 240
PIOPUT ........................................................................................................................................ 240
PIOSET ......................................................................................................................................... 241
APPENDIX A: 11-PIN INTERFACE
243
Signals and Pin-Out ............................................................................................................ 243
SIO mode ........................................................................................................................... 244
RS-232 Standard and Conventions ..................................................................................... 244
Signal Levels ....................................................................................................................... 246
Data Transfer Cable CE-T800 and CE-T801 ........................................................................ 246
USB PC Adapter Cable with Hardware Handshake ............................................................ 248
RS-232 printer .................................................................................................................... 248
SSIO mode ......................................................................................................................... 249
CE-126P printer protocol ................................................................................................... 249
LPRT Protocol and Mini I/O Port ........................................................................................ 250
PWM Mode ....................................................................................................................... 251
CE-126P Tape Protocol ....................................................................................................... 251
Generic PWM protocol....................................................................................................... 252
PIO mode........................................................................................................................... 252
PIC mode ........................................................................................................................... 256
APPENDIX B: KEYBOARD COMMANDS
263
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION RANGES
265
Numerical Calculations ....................................................................................................... 265
Functions ............................................................................................................................ 265
Statistical Calculations ....................................................................................................... 266
APPENDIX D: SPECIFICATIONS
267
APPENDIX E: RESETTING THE COMPUTER
269
APPENDIX F: SYSTEM BUS
271
APPENDIX G: KANJI CONVERSION CHART
273
APPENDIX H: CHARACTER CODE TABLE
275
APPENDIX I: MEMORY MAP
277
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
xiv
APPENDIX J: ROM ADDRESSES
279
ROM Routines ................................................................................................................... 279
Confirmed Addresses ......................................................................................................... 279
BASIC Routines (Unconfirmed): ......................................................................................... 280
Other Addresses (Unconfirmed) ........................................................................................ 281
Display Control Ports 40h, 41h:........................................................................................... 283
Key Matrix ......................................................................................................................... 285
BIOS Key Values ................................................................................................................. 286
Conversion of BEEP Command Values to Tones: .................................................................. 286
Self-Test Mode ................................................................................................................... 287
BASIC Code Table ............................................................................................................... 288
APPENDIX K: ERROR MESSAGES
289
APPENDIX L: Z80 PROGRAMMING REFERENCE
291
Z80 registers and flags ........................................................................................................ 291
Z80 Instruction set ............................................................................................................. 291
Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... 291
8-bit Load Instructions ....................................................................................................... 292
16-bit Load Instructions ..................................................................................................... 293
8-bit Arithmetic and Logic Instructions ............................................................................. 294
16-bit Arithmetic Instructions ........................................................................................... 296
Register Exchange Instructions .......................................................................................... 296
Branch Instructions ............................................................................................................ 297
Subroutines ........................................................................................................................ 298
Shift Instructions ................................................................................................................ 299
Bit Commands .................................................................................................................... 301
CPU Commands ................................................................................................................. 301
Copy/Compare ................................................................................................................... 302
Input/Output ..................................................................................................................... 303
APPENDIX M: INSTALLING A SPEAKER
305
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
1
1. OVERVIEW
1.1. Precautions
Please do not press the liquid crystal
display. The display may break.
Please do not store near heaters or
expose to direct sunlight (for example
in a car). Due to the high temperatures,
deformations can occur.
Do not drop, press or expose to any
other force - The device may break.
Clean the surface with a soft, dry cloth.
Do not use solvents such as thinner,
gasoline or a wet cloth. Color changes
or surface damage may occur.
Please do not store with hard or sharp objects in your pocket. The device can be scratched.
Always use the cover. The product is not waterproof.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
2
The hardcover serves to protect the computer against damage. Whenever you are not using
the pocket computer, please install the hardcover. For example, if you put the calculator in
your pocket.
Removing the
protective sleeve:
Using
When not in use:
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
3
1.2. Using the PC-G850V(S) for the First Time
(1) Insert batteries
Please insert the batteries. To do so, remove the
cover of the battery compartment on the back as
shown in the illustration.
Insert the batteries in the correct direction. Follow
the pictograms in the battery compartment.
Close the battery lid again.
(2) Reset
Immediately after inserting the batteries into the
computer, the internal status of the PC-G850V is
not set yet. To do this, the computer must first be
initialized.
Press the .ON. button and then press the reset
button under the .SHIFT. button with a
ballpoint pen or similar device. Then release
the reset button again.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
4
Immediately after pressing the .RESET. button, the PC-G850V displays the following
screen. If any other indication appears, the above procedure must be repeated.
MEMORY CLEAR O.K.? (Y/N)
The PC-G850V asks for confirmation to clear the memory:
Press the ..Y.. key. The following message flashes, indicating that the computer has been
initialized and all memory contents have been cleared.
************************
* *
* ALL RESET *
* *
************************
Press any key. The following display appears:
RUN MODE
>
(3) Check computer function
To ensure normal computer function, press the following keys:
..F.. ..R.. ..E..
RUN MODE
FRE
30179
When the above screen appears, the computer is functioning normally and ready for input.
The number 30179 represents the storage capacity for programs and data.
Note: If the PC-G850V(S) does not show the appropriate display after the above
steps, the corresponding step should be tried again with the correct input
for the step.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
5
1.2.1. Replacing the Batteries
If BATT is displayed, the batteries must be replaced.
The computer uses four AAA batteries for operation. If the batteries are too weak while the
CE-126P is being used simultaneously with the computer, it can also be powered by the CE-
126P. This reduces the load on the internal battery.
1.2.2. When to Change the Batteries
If the BATT warning light appears in the lower left corner of the display, it means that the
batteries are too low. They should be replaced with new ones immediately. If the computer
continues to be used, even though BATT is displayed, the computer will turn off after some
time. After that, it cannot be turned on by pressing the .ON. button again.
Note: The Pocket Computer retains its programs and files for a long period
without batteries. To be on the safe side, do not remove the batteries from
the computer for more than 5 minutes.
Caution: NEVER remove the batteries when the pocket computer is switched on, because
after reinserting the batteries the computer must always be reset and thus all data is
lost. Also, you may want to backup or print all programs and data to a PC first.
If an additional peripheral device is connected, the computer can be powered by this device.
In this case, the BATT warning indicator does not appear even though the batteries of the
computer are too weak. Before use, the peripheral should be disconnected at short notice to
check if the BATT warning light appears on the display or not. Furthermore, there is a
connection on the rear right side to power the computer with an external power supply (6V,
0.2W).
1.3. Device Overview
The SHARP computer consists of a QWERTY keyboard similar to that of a conventional
typewriter and an LCD display with adjustable contrast. On the left side is the SHARP 11-pin
interface and on the right side the interface to the PIC microcontroller. Top right is a
connector for an external power supply with 6V and 0.2W (e.g. power supply Sharp EA-
23E).
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Overview
6
1
Display (6 lines, 24 characters / line) 144x48 pixels)
2
SHARP 11-pin interface for printer, serial interface, etc.
3
Reset button (recessed)
4
Space bar
5
Typewriter keyboard
6
Enter key(s)
7
Interface for PIC microcontroller
8
Delete key
9
Power-on/Wake-up button
10 Power-off button
11 Connection for power supply (6V, 0.2W, e.g. power supply Sharp EA-23E).
12 Battery compartment cover (on the back)
13 Mode toggle keys (Basic RUN / PRO, Assembler, C, CASL, Text Editor)
14 Function key
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
7
2. BASIC FUNCTIONS AND MODES
There are a number of important letters, numbers and symbols on the PC-G850V.
2.1. Switching on the Computer
Press the .ON. button on the right side of the computer keyboard. The computer is in RUN
mode after being turned on.
2.2. Automatic Shutdown
To protect the batteries, the computer automatically shuts itself off if no buttons are pressed
after approximately 11 minutes. Press the .ON. button to turn it back on after the computer
turned itself off.
If the computer is executing an INKEY$ command, the auto power off function is disabled.
It is active while the computer is executing an INPUT command.
If the computer is not used for a long time while the automatic shutdown is disabled, battery
power will be consumed. This can lead to the loss of stored programs or data.
2.3. Setting the Contrast
The menu for setting the contrast is called by pressing .SHIFT. and .ANS.. Adjust the contrast
so that you can see the display clearly.
*** LCD CONTRAST ***
DARK
LIGHT
Pressing the cursor keys
(Increase Contrast) and
(Decrease Contrast) adjusts the
contrast.
If the display is set correctly, the setting can be set by pressing the .BASIC., .TEXT. or .CLS.
key.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
8
2.4. The SHARP PC-G850 Modes
The Sharp PC-G850V has 7 different modes:
RUN mode
execute BASIC programs or BASIC commands, input of
mathematical functions
PRO mode
writing or correcting BASIC programs
TEXT mode
entering, editing, deleting and saving (ram disk, SIO), loading (ram
disk, SIO) text programs in ASCII format, conversion to BASIC or
vice versa, creating and deleting data files
ASMBL mode
(assembler mode)
assemble an assembler program (generation of Z80 machine code)
CASL mode
translate and execute CASL programs (accessible via ASMBL)
PIC mode
translate source programs and transmit them to the PIC. (accessible
via ASMBL)
C mode
compile and run C programs.
Mode Switching
Mode
Keys
RUN mode
.BASIC.
PRO mode
.BASIC. or .BASIC. .BASIC. (to enter PRO mode from outside the RUN
mode, press .BASIC. twice)
TEXT mode
.TEXT.
ASMBL mode
.SHIFT. + .BASIC. (ASMBL), then ..A..
CASL mode
.SHIFT. + .BASIC. (ASMBL), then ..C..
PIC mode
.SHIFT. + .BASIC. (ASMBL), then ..P..
C mode
.SHIFT. + .TEXT. (C)
Instead of .SHIFT. you can press .2ndF. beforehand.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
9
2.5. Basic Operation
Turn on the computer. Pressing .CLS. will clear the screen and start typing in the upper left
corner.
Character input
..A.. ..B.. ..C.. ..D.. ..E.. ..F.. ..G..
ABCDEFG
In this way you will get capital letters.
Lowercase input
..H.. ..I.. ..J.. ..K.. ..L.. ..M.. ..N..
ABCDEFGhijklmn
Pressing .CAPS. will quit the CAPS mode (always on after power-on) and will allow entering
of lowercase letters.
Special characters
By pressing the .SHIFT. key and the associated key simultaneously, the corresponding special
character is written. Alternatively, press the .2ndF. key BEFORE pressing the corresponding
key. The following keypress will enter the corresponding special character or mathematical
function.
..E.. ..R.. ..T..
ABCDEFGhijklmn#$%
.2ndF. ..I.. .2ndF. ..O.. .2ndF. ..P..
ABCDEFGhijklmn#$%<>@
This is how numbers are entered
..1.. ..2.. ..3.. ..4.. ..5.. ..6..
..7.. ..8.. ..9..
ABCDEFGhijklmn#$%<>@1234
56789
Cursor control
To change entered characters, use the four cursor keys (
).
If the cursor is at the end of a line, an underscore appears to allow continuation of the line. If
the cursor is in the middle of the text field, the corresponding character flashes in black. The
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
10
entry of characters overwrites existing characters from this position. When you hold down
the cursor key, the cursor moves quickly over the screen.
2.6. The Display
The computer has a 6-line liquid crystal display with 24 characters per line and a status bar at
the top and bottom. Each character occupies a 5x7 dot matrix. The display shows key names
and calculations. The display examples in this manual only reproduce the symbols required
for the respective explanation of the function.
In BASIC mode, the display shows:
Standby symbol. This icon appears when the computer is ready to accept an
input in BASIC mode. When typing. As you type, the ready icon disappears
and is replaced by the cursor
The cursor. This symbol marks the location of the next character to be
entered. When you start typing, the cursor replaces the standby icon. As a
marker symbol, the cursor is also used in conjunction with the INSert and
DELete functions. The underscore cursor changes to the block cursor when it
is not on a character.
The status lines reflect the following:
BUSY
This word appears on the display when the computer executes a program or
command.
BATT
This symbol indicates that the batteries are weak and need to be replaced.
RUN
This icon indicates the RUN mode for the computer.
PRO
This symbol indicates the BASIC programming mode for the computer.
TEXT
Indicates that the computer is in TEXT mode.
CASL
This icon indicates the CASL programming mode for the computer. Enter this
mode by pressing the .ASMBL. key (.SHIFT. + .BASIC. followed by ..C..).
STAT
This icon indicates that the computer is in statistics mode. Enter this mode by
pressing the .STAT. key (.SHIFT. + .MDF.)
2ndF
The display appears when the .2ndF. button has been pressed and disappears
with the following key command. Remember that the .2ndF. key must be
released before pressing another key when the second
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
11
M
Indicates that another number other than zero is stored for manual calculations.
CAPS
Indicates that the computer is in CAPS mode. If this indicator does not appear
on the display, all letters of the alphabet are entered as lowercase letters. The
.CAPS. key can be used to toggle CAPS mode on and off again.
If you press the
key, you can enter katakana syllables with Latin letters.
(See page 11) By pressing this key, you can toggle this feature on and off.
Indicates that the computer is in katakana mode and you can enter lowercase
letters by turning off the CAPS mode.
DEG
RAD
GRAD
Shows the current angle mode of the computer:
DEG (Degree mode)
RAD (Radian mode)
GRAD (Gradian mode)
CONST
Indicates that the computer has a constant set for calculations. When this icon is
displayed, the computer performs a calculation with this constant each time the
button is pressed. If the constant is no longer needed, it can be deleted with
.SHIFT. + .CA..
PRINT
This icon indicates that the computer is ready in RUN mode to send data to the
printer. Press .SHIFT. + .PNP. to toggle on and off. (Only possible with an
optional printer connected.)
The PC-G850V offers you the possibility of Japanese words in Kanji format entry. This
function is switched off by pressing the
button.
Toggle kanji mode
Switch to lowercase letters
Switch to entry of consonants
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
12
Examples:
Input Character
Keyboard Input
KATAKANA
GAKKOU
HENNKAN
DHISUKU
HAN
I
I
OTTI
When entering 'n', if consonants excluding Y come after Shift+U (there is no need to press
SHIFT + U.
For details on how to write Romani, see page 273.
Caution: It is not always possible to display all characters of the entry in the bottom line
become:
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
13
Special kanji symbols:
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Basic Operation
14
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
15
3. MANUAL CALCULATIONS
The computer can be used as a 10-digit calculator. To do this, the computer must be set to
BASIC RUN mode. The RUN indicator will appear on the top right of the display.
Math Function
Math Operator Input
(1) Addition
+
+
(2) Subtraction
-
-
(3) Multiplication
*
(4) Division
/
(5) Integer Division
¥
(6) Modulo division
MOD
(7) Sign
+ or -
+, -
(8) Perform operation
=
Examples:
51 ¥ 5
10
51 MOD 5
1
(51 5 = 10… 1)
51 ¥ –5.7
–8
51 MOD –5.7
3
(51 –6 = –8… 3)
87.57 ¥ 5.4
17
87.57 MOD 5.4
3
(88 5 = 17… 3)
30º36´ ¥ 14º36´
2
30º36´ MOD 14º36´
1
(31 15 = 2… 1)
30º36´ ¥ 4.4
7
30º36´ MOD 4.4
3
(31 4 = 7… 3)
87.57 ¥ 14º36´
5
87.57 MOD 14º36´
13
(88 15 = 5… 13)
5 + 15 * 2 / 4
12.5
3.1. Keypad Operation
The cursor key,
, can be used to edit and change the input. To edit, move the cursor to the
appropriate position using the cursor keys and overwrite the character with a new one. If
characters are to be inserted, press the .INS. key for insert mode. Insert mode remains active
until the .INS. key is pressed again. If the character under the cursor is to be deleted, use
.DEL. (.SHIFT. + .INS.). If, on the other hand, the character in front of the cursor is to be
deleted, use the .BS. key.
3.1.1. Keys for Mathematical Operations
ANS
If .ANS. is used when entering a mathematical function, the result of the last calculation is
inserted at the current cursor position.
Example:
5 + 15 * 2 / 4
12.5
4 * .ANS. (inserts 12.5)
50
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
16
EXP, 𝟏𝟎𝒙, and 𝒆𝒙
Entering the exponent is performed by .SHIFT. + .EXP.. Instead of .EXP., the letter E can also
be used.
Example:
36 .EXP. 3 36E3
36000
52 .10𝑥.
1.E 52
5 .𝑒𝑥.
148.4131591
DIGIT
The .DIGIT. key, in conjunction with a number key, is used to specify the number of decimal
places. If a dot (.....) is used instead of the number key, the display is reset to the default
number of decimal places.
Use the .F↔E. key to switch between fixed and scientific mode.
Example:
.2ndF. .DIGIT. 2
5 / 8
0.63
.2ndF. .DIGIT. 5
0.62500
.2ndF. .DIGIT. .....
0.625
USING
Format:
USING [format-string]
USING allows formatted data output. The format is determined by a format-string,
which consists of a series of characters enclosed in quotation marks. The format-string
is composed of the following characters:
# right-justified character of a numeric field
.
delimiter between the integer and fractional part of a number
,
comma as separator after 3 digits in numeric fields
^ display the number in scientific notation
For each # contained in format-string, a digit of a numerical value or the sign can be
displayed. All other format symbols are used to describe numeric formats in more detail.
Both positive and negative values can be represented, however, the sign is only displayed for
negative values.
The format for USING corresponds to the BASIC command USING (see page 234). USING
without parameters resets the output format to default.
Example:
USING "###. ##"
8 / 3
2.66
17 / 3
5.66
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
17
If the result is greater than that permitted by the output format, an error (ERROR 70) is
displayed.
USING "###. ##"
17865 / 3
ERROR 70
MDF (Modification Function)
With .DIGIT., the computer displays only the specified number of decimal places, but
internally it always stores all digits. Therefore, the displayed data may differ from the
internal data. To match the internal and the displayed data, the modification function is used.
Example:
Without MDF
Keystrokes
Output
(.2ndF. .CA.)
55.4 ../.. 9
6.155555556
..*.. 9
6.155555556*9_
55.4
with MDF
Keystrokes
Output
(.2ndF. .DIGIT. 3)
55.4 ../.. 9
.MDF.
6.156
6.156
..*.. 9
6.156*9_
55.404
Sign Change
The sign (–) (.2ndF. ..–..) reverses the sign of the displayed result (from plus to minus and
vice versa).
3.2. Memory Operations
Independent memory can be selected with the keys .M+., .M-. and .R-CM..
.R-CM. Shows the contents of the memory and inserts it into the calculation. If .R-CM. is
pressed twice, the contents of the memory will be erased. The M symbol clears.
.M+.
Adds the displayed result or result of a mathematical function to the memory. If
the memory was empty before (i.e. 0) the M symbol appears
.M-.
Subtracts the displayed result or result of a mathematical function from the
memory. If the memory was empty before (i.e. 0) the M symbol appears
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
18
3.3. Calculations with Constants
The .CONST. key can be used to apply constants to basic arithmetic operations as described
below.
Using constants
Addition:
..+.. a .CONST. or a ..+.. .CONST.
Subtraction:
..–.. a .CONST. or a ..–.. .CONST.
Multiplication: ..*.. a .CONST. or a ..*.. .CONST.
Division:
../.. a .CONST. or a ../.. .CONST.
where "a" means the constant. After pressing .CONST., CONST appears on the bottom right
of the display.
Note: If the constant function is not used, make sure that the CONST indicator
does not appear on the display.
Viewing constants
To view the last entered constant, press .2ndF. + .CONST. (.SHIFT. + .CONST.) while CONST
is displayed.
Delete the last constant
To delete the last entered constant, press .2ndF. + .CA. (.SHIFT. + .CA.). It can also be deleted
by switching off the device. The CONST indicator should be off.
Example:
Store "+ (4.8 + 3.6)" as a constant and calculate "24 –18.5 + (4.8 + 3.6)" and "8.2 x 6 +
(4.8 + 3.6)"
Enter:
+ 4.8 + 3.6 .CONST.
(Parenthesis not required)
Enter:
24 – 18.5
Result: 13.9
Enter:
8.2 * 6
Result: 57.6
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
19
3.4. Priority in Direct Input Calculations
The PC-G850V(S) uses the following operator precedence when evaluating an expression:
1. Variable recall or π
2. Functions (such as sin, cos, etc.)
3. Power, roots
4. Sign
5. *, / (operators at the same priority level are executed sequentially from left to right)
6. +, –
7. Relational expressions
8. Logical expressions
9. =, M+
If parentheses are used in a formula, the operation given within the parentheses has the
highest priority.
Note:
Composite functions are evaluated from right to left
Chained power (342or 3^4^2) is evaluated from right to left
For items 3 and 4 above, the last entry has the highest priority
-2^4 -(24)
3^-2 3-2
3.5. Base Conversion (BASE-n)
In the ROM of the PC-G850V(S) is a BASIC program which allows for numerical
conversion among base2, base10, and base16 systems. It also computes the 2 compliment
allows basic arithmetic and logical operations. To access this program, press .SHIFT. +
.BASE-n.. You will then receive the following prompt asking to clear the BASIC program
memory space (effectively deleting all your basic programs).
BASIC DELETE OK? (Y)
Pressing ..Y.. will load the BASE-n program into memory and execute the program. Pressing
any other key will return you to RUN mode and leave any BASIC programs in memory
intact.
Note: The BASE-n program requires 2794 bytes of free memory plus an
additional 167 bytes for variable storage. If not enough memory is
available to run the program, the process is aborted and BASIC program
memory is left intact. This is true even if you see the above prompt to
clear memory and press ..Y... The computer will return to RUN mode.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
20
Attempting to run the program with .SHIFT. + .BASE-n. with insufficient
memory will return you to RUN mode.
If variables cannot be allocated at runtime, you will receive an ERROR 60
message. In this case, clear the variable memory or delete a TEXT
program to free up more memory space. Please make sure that at least
2961 (2794 + 167) bytes are available prior to starting BASE-n.
To exit the program, press .BREAK.. To restart the program, you can RUN in RUN mode
provided no alterations were made in the BASIC program memory space. Using .SHIFT. +
.BASE-n. to restart the program will reload BASE-n from ROM and execute the program.
Upon starting BASE-n, you will be presented with the following screen:
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
(1,2,3,4)?
The four available options are:
1) Input:
enter numeric value for conversion.
2) Convert:
convert numbers from one base to another.
It also toggles between input and calculation.
3) Complement: finds the two’s complement of the number
4) Calculation:
allows calculation with basic arithmetic operators (+, –, *, /) and
logical operators (AND, OR, NOT, XOR).
3.5.1. Value Range
The program is limited to the following range limits
Binary
: 16 bits.
The most significant (leftmost) bit is the sign bit. If more that 16 bits are
entered, the first 16 bits are used as the input value. If the result of a
calculation exceeds 16 bits, the results is truncated to the least significant
16 bits.
Hexadecimal : 0000-FFFF (8000–7FFF)
If more than 4 hexadecimal numbers are entered, the value is truncated to
the 4 least significant 4 hexadecimal digits.
Decimal
: -32768 – 32767
Decimal values are converted to the corresponding hexadecimal number
then truncated to the least significant 4 hexadecimal digits if it has more
than 4 digits. This means that any decimal value entered will always fall
within the above decimal range.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
21
3.5.2. Input Number
Pressing ..1.. allows entry of a number for conversion or calculation. The program prompts
for numeric entry. For example, to enter the decimal number 1230 for conversion:
..1..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
(1,2,3,4)?
..1.. ..2.. ..3.. ..0..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[10ツン]= 1230
Note that the program is expecting a decimal number. This is indicated by the value in
brackets. If an incorrect digit is entered (i.e. a hexadecimal digit is entered when the program
is expecting a binary number), ERROR is temporarily displayed and the program waits for
another input.
3.5.3. Base Conversion
After a number is entered, pressing ..2.. allows conversion of the number from one base to
another. The sequence of the conversion is:
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary - …
For example, given the decimal number 1230:
..2..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 04CE
..2..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[ 2ツン]= 0000010011001110
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
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..2..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[10ツン]= 1230
The converted number is available for further calculations.
3.5.4. Two’s Complement
The two’s complement is the inverse of a binary number. The sum of a number and its two’s
complement is equivalent to the sum of the number and its inverse, which is zero. You can
calculate the two’s complement of an entered number by pressing ..3... The operation works
regardless of the base of the number. For example, to calculate the two’s complement of
12C7:
..2.. (to switch to hexadecimal numbers)
..1..
12C7
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 12C7
..3..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= ED39
Press ..3.. again and you have 12C7. The two numbers are complementary to each other.
3.5.5. Calcuations
This program allows calculations directly on hexadecimal and binary numbers. Normally in
RUN mode, hexadecimal/binary values must be converted to decimal to allow mathematical
or logical operations. In this program, the operations can be performed on the values directly,
without the need for conversion. Pressing ..4.. brings up a list of the available operations:
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= ED39
(+,–,*,/,A,O,N,X)?
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
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In addition to the standard arithmetic operations (+, –, *, and /), the logical operators (A)ND,
(O)R, (N)OT, and (X)OR are also available. For example, to calculate the result of 3E7C
AND 0FF0:
..1..
3E7C
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 3E7C
..4..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 3E7C
(+,–,*,/,A,O,N,X)?
..A..
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 3E7C
AND_
0FF0
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 0E70
You can perform further calculations on the result. For instance, to find the result of 92
(decimal) subtracted from the result of the prior calculation:
..2.. ..2.. (switch to decimal)
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[10ツン]= 3696
..4.. ..–.. 92
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 3604
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Manual Calculations
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..2.. (switch to hexadecimal)
***** n ツン エンサ' ン *****
1:ニユウリヨク 2:へンカン
3:ホスウ 4:ケイサン
[16ツン]= 0E14
Note: The the program executed by .SHIFT. + .BASE-n. is named BASE_N.BAS.
If there is a BASIC program of the same name in the File area, the
BASE_N.BAS program in ROM will not be executed. Therefore, to use
the ROM program, the program in the File area with the same name must
be either renamed or removed. Otherwise, pressing .SHIFT. + .BASE-n.
will execute the program with the same name in the File area.
Additionally, pressing .SHIFT. + .BASE-n. automatically executes a GOTO
100. This may result in an error in the execution of the program with the
same name in the File area.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics Mode
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4. STATISTICS MODE
The PC-G850V(S) can perform statistical and regression calculations on one or two
variables. With statistical calculations, you can obtain mean values, standard deviations and
other statistical quantities from sample data. Regression calculation determines the
coefficients of linear regression formulas or estimate values from sample data. Sample data is
stored in fixed registers U-Z.
4.1. Entering STAT Mode
You can enter STAT mode by pressing the .STAT. key (.SHIFT. or .2ndF. + .MDR.). The
STAT indicator will be displayed on the right side of the screen. The following screen will
then appear:
***** トウケイ フ' ンセ *****
1: 1~ンスワ トウケイ (x)
2: 2~ンスワ トウケイ (x,y)
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
From this screen, you can then select between one-variable or two-variable statistics. To exit
from the main STAT screen, press .BREAK..
Caution: When you enter STAT mode, all previous statistical data and calculations are
erased.
4.2. One-Variable (Univariate) Statistics
To calculate one-variable statistics, press ..1.. from the main STAT screen. You will then see
the following screen:
*** ンョリ *** (x)
1:ニュウリョク 2:サクソ'ョ/クリア
3:フ’ンセキ 4:フ’リンタ
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
The menu options are:
1: Enter data
2: Delete/Clear Data
3: Calculate statistics
4: Print statistics
To return to the main STAT screen, press .BREAK..
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics
26
4.2.1. Data Entry
From the univariate statistics menu, press ..1.. to enter data for statistical analysis. You will
be presented with the following screen:
** テ°ータ ニュウリョク **
1:x=_
The number represents the total number of items entered for analysis while the underscore
tells you that the computer is waiting for an input. To enter data for analysis, type the value
and press
to accept.
To enter a negative value, press the sign (.2ndF. ..–..) key then the value. Then press
to
accept.
If you need to enter several data points that have the same value, you can enter the value
followed by a comma (..,..), then the number of times the value is repeated. Press
to
accept.
Press .BREAK. to accept the entered data and return to the univariate statistics menu.
Example: Enter the values from the following table for analysis:
Value
# Entries
Value
# Entries
30
1
70
8
40
1
80
9
50
4
90
5
60
5
100
2
Keystrokes
Output
.SHIFT. + .STAT. (Enter STAT mode)
..1.. (Select 1-variable statistics)
..1.. (Select Data Entry mode)
1:x=_
..3.. ..0..
2:x=_
..4.. ..0..
3:x=_
..5.. ..0.. ..,.. ..4..
7:x=_
..6.. ..0.. ..,.. ..5..
12:x=_
..7.. ..0.. ..,.. ..8..
20:x=_
..8.. ..0.. ..,.. ..9..
29:x=_
..9.. ..0.. ..,.. ..5..
34:x=_
..1.. ..0.. ..0.. ..,.. ..2..
36:x=_
.BREAK> (Exit data entry)
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics Mode
27
4.2.2. Univariate Statistical Calculations
Press ..3.. in the univariate statistics menu to access the available univariate statistical
calculations. The following screen is displayed:
** フ' ンセキ ** (x)
1:n 2:∑x 3:∑x2 4:x̅
5:s 6:
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
The following calculations are available:
n
: Sample size of x
𝑥̅
: Sample mean of x
∑x : Sum of samples x
∑x2 : Sum of squares of samples x
s
: Sample standard deviation. The formula for the sample standard deviation is:
𝑠 = √∑
(𝑥𝑖−𝑥̅)2
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛−1
.
: Population standard deviation. The formula for the population standard deviation is:
𝜎 = √∑
(𝑥𝑖−𝑥̅)2
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛
.
Press the appropriate number to obtain the corresponding result.
Example: Continuing from the prior example.
Keystrokes
Output
..3.. (Select univariate calculations)
..4..
x̅=
71.42857143
..5..
s=
16.47508942
..6..
=
16.23802542
.SHIFT. + .STAT. (Exit STAT mode)
4.2.3. Correcting Errors
If an error is made during data entry, return to the univariate statistics menu by pressing
.BREAK> and press ..2.. to enter Delete/Clear mode. The following screen is displayed:
** サクン'ョ/クリア **
1: テ’ータ サクン’ョ
2: オーJ レ クリア
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics
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Selecting ..1.. will allow you delete incorrect entries in the dataset. The following screen is
displayed:
* テ'ータサクン'ョ *
x=_
Use the same procedure as in Data Entry (section 4.2.1) to delete erroneous values. You can
use ..,.. to delete multiple identical data values. When complete, press .BREAK. to accept
changes and return to univariate statistics menu. You can now return to Data Entry (Option
1) to enter the correct values.
Selecting ..2.. will delete the entire dataset allowing you to start over with data entry. When
pressed, the following screen is displayed:
* オール クりア *
1:YES
2:NO
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
If YES is selected, the statistical registers are cleared and the univareiate statistics menu is
displayed. If NO is selected, the statistical registers are untouched and the univariate statistics
menu is displayed.
4.2.4. Printing
After data entry is complete, the calculated statistics can be printed with an optional CE-126P
printer. Connect the printer to the computer and turn on the power to the printer. After data
entry is complete, press ..4.. to print the results of the statistical calculations. You will see the
following on the screen:
** インヅ'チュウ **
The printer will print the results of all the statistical calculations. A sample printout is shown
below:
n= 35
∑x=
2500
∑x2=
187800
MEAN(x̅)=
71.42857143
s= 16.47508942
= 16.23802542
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics Mode
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4.3. Two-Variable (Bivariate) Statistics
The basic operation of two-variable (bivariate) statistics is identical to univariate statistics.
Enter STAT mode and press ..2.. to enter the bivariate statistics menu. Press ..1.. to enter data.
Data entry is identical to univariate statistics mode except you are now prompted to enter two
values, x and y. As in univariate data entry, the sign key (.2ndF. ..–..) is used to enter
negative values and comma (..,..) is used to enter duplicate value pairs. When data entry is
complete, press .BREAK. to accept values and return to the bivariate statistics menu.
When performing exponential, logarithmic, power, or inverse regression calculations, use the
following table to transform the respective regression calculation formula into a linear
regression. Each statistic can then be determined using the transformed values for x and y.
Type
X
Y
Transformation Formula
Linear
x
y
none
Exponential
x
ln y
Y = ln a + bx
Logarithmic
ln x
y
y = a + bX
Power
ln x
ln y
Y = ln a + bX
Inverse
1/x
y
y = a + bX
4.3.1. Bivariate Statistical Calculations
Press ..3.. in the bivariate statistics menu to access the available bivariate statistical
calculations. The following screen is displayed:
** フ' ンセキ ** (x,y)
1:n 2:∑x 3:∑x2 4:x̅
5:sx 6:x 2:∑y 3:∑y2
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
Note there is an arrow in the upper right corner of the screen to indicate there are additional
statistical calculations available. To access the additional screen of calculations, press
.
The following screen is shown:
** フ' ンセキ ** (x,y)
1:∑xy 2:y̅ 3:sy 4:y
5:a 6:b 2:x’ 3:y’
ハ' ンコ' ウ ヲ エランテ' クタ' サイ.
To return to the previous screen, press
. Press the corresponding number to display the
result of the calculation. To return to the bivariate statistics menu, press .BREAK..
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics
30
The following calculations are available:
n
: Sample size
𝑥̅, 𝑦̅
: Mean of x, y
∑x, ∑y
: Sum of x, y
∑x2, ∑y2 : Sum of squares of x, y
∑xy
: Sum of products of x and y
sx, sy
: Sample standard deviation of x, y. The formula for the sample standard
deviation is:
𝑠𝑥 = √∑ 𝑥2−𝑛𝑥̅2
𝑛−1
, 𝑠𝑦 = √∑ 𝑦2−𝑛𝑦̅2
𝑛−1
.
x, y
: Population standard deviation of x, y. The formula for the population
standard deviation is:
𝜎𝑦 = √∑ 𝑥2−𝑛𝑥̅2
𝑛
, 𝜎𝑦 = √∑ 𝑦2−𝑛𝑦̅2
𝑛
.
a
: Intercept of the linear regression line. The formula for the intercept is:
𝑎 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥̅
b
: Slope of the linear regression line. The formula for the slope is:
𝑏 =
𝑆𝑥𝑦
𝑆𝑥𝑥.
r
: Correlation coefficient. The formula for the correlation coefficient is:
𝑟 =
𝑆𝑥𝑦
√𝑆𝑥𝑥∙𝑆𝑦𝑦.
x'
: Estimated value of x. The formula is 𝑥′ =
𝑦−𝑎
𝑏 .
y’
: Estimated value of y. The formula is 𝑦′ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏.
Where
: 𝑆𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥2 −
(∑ 𝑥)2
𝑛 , 𝑆𝑦𝑦 = ∑ 𝑦2 −
(∑ 𝑦)2
𝑛 , 𝑆𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦 −
∑ 𝑥∙∑ 𝑦
𝑛
For x’ and y’, the computer will prompt for a value. Press .BREAK. after the value is
displayed to return to the bivariate calculation menu.
Example:
The following table contains the average temperature (in °C) for the month of April and
the number of flowering cherry trees on the same day. Perform a linear regression
analysis and calculate the slope, intercept, and correlation coefficient of this dataset. Also
estimate how many flowering cherry trees do you expect to see at a temperature of 9.1°C
and what would you expect the temperature to be if there are 10 flowering cherry trees.
Day
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Temperature (x)
6.2
7.0
6.8
8.7
7.9
6.5
6.1
8.2
Cherry Blooms (y)
13
9
1
5
7
12
15
7
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics Mode
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Keystrokes
Output
.SHIFT. + .MDR.
(Enter STAT mode)
..2.. (Select bivariable statistics)
..1.. (Select Data Entry mode)
1:x=_
..6.. ..... ..2..
..1.. ..3..
1:x=6.2
y=13
2:x=_
..7.. ..... ..0..
..9..
2:x=7.0
y=9
3:x=_
..6.. ..... ..8..
..1..
3:x=6.8
y=1
4:x=_
..8.. ..... ..7..
..5..
4:x=8.7
y=5
5:x=_
..7.. ..... ..9..
..7..
5:x=7.9
y=7
6:x=_
..6.. ..... ..5..
..1.. ..2..
6:x=6.5
y=12
7:x=_
..6.. ..... ..1..
..1.. ..5..
7:x=6.1
y=15
8:x=_
..8.. ..... ..2..
..7..
8:x=8.2
y=7
9:x=_
.BREAK> (Exit data entry)
..3..
(Enter Bivariable cacluations)
(show 2nd calculation menu)
..5..
a=
34.44951017
..6..
b=
-3.425-18839
..7..
r=
-9.691068372E-01
..9..
X=_
..9.. ..... ..1..
Y=
3.281838734
..8..
Y=_
..1.. ..0..
X=
7.13850386
.SHIFT. + .MDR.
(Exit STAT mode)
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Statistics
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4.4. Calculation Storage
Results of statistical calculations are stored in fixed variables U-Z (see section 5.2.2 Fixed
Variables). The following table shows what calculations are stored in each variable. When
you exit STAT mode, these values are retained. This allows access of the results statistical
calculations in RUN mode. Be aware if you return to STAT mode, the contents of these
variables are cleared and the values will have to be re-entered for further calculations.
Variable
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Univariate
–
–
–
∑x2
∑x
n
Bivariate
∑y2
∑y
∑xy
∑x2
∑x
n
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5. PROGRAM OPERATION
5.1. Constants
5.1.1. String Constants
The computer is able to process letters and special symbols in many ways besides
numerically. These letters, numbers and special symbols are called characters.
In BASIC, a collection of characters is called a string. In order for the computer to
understand the difference between a string and other parts of the program, e.g. If you want to
recognize commands or variable names, you must enclose the string in quotes ("). To use
quotation marks as characters, use "CHR$ &H22".
Here are some examples of string constants:
"HELLO"
"Goodbye"
"SHARP COMPUTER"
The following examples are not accepted as string constants:
"COMPUTER
quotes are missing at the end.
"VALUE OF "A" IS"
quotes may not be used within a string.
5.1.2. Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal system is based on the number 16 instead of the number 10. To write
hexadecimal digits, use the digits 0 to 9, and six additional "digits" A, B, C, D, E and F.
These correspond to the numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. To use a hexadecimal number,
place an ampersand (&) and "H" in front of the number:
&HA
= 10
&H10
= 16
&H100
= 256
&HFFFF = 65535
5.2. Variables
Computers are made up of a number of very small memory units, called bytes. Each byte can
be thought of as a single character. For example, the word "byte" requires four bytes of
memory because it contains four letters. To find out how many bytes are available to use,
simply enter the FRE command in RUN mode. The number displayed indicates how many
bytes are free for programming.
This method works well for strings, but is inefficient for storing numbers. For this reason,
numbers are stored in coded form. This allows the computer to store very long numbers in 8
bytes. The largest number that can be stored is +9.999999999E+99. The smallest number is
1E–99, a fairly large number range. However, if the result of the calculation exceeds these
limits, the computer issues an error message.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Program Operation
34
Example:
R = 556
For string variables, the principle is the same. The computer recognizes the difference
between string vs. numeric variables by the addition of a $ at the end of the variable name.
For example, the word "BYTE" can be stored in the variable B$. Note the $ sign after B.
This tells the computer that the contents of the variable B$ are alphanumeric or string data.
More explicitly:
B$ = "BYTE"
5.2.1. Types of Variables
The variables that the computer uses are divided as follows:
Numeric variables: Fixed numeric variables (A to Z)
Simple numeric variables (AB, C1, etc.)
Numeric array variables
String variables:
Fixed character variables (A$ to Z$)
Simple string variables (BB$, C2$, etc.)
String array variables
5.2.2. Fixed Variables
Fixed variables, are variables with pre-allocated memory. In other words, no matter how
much memory the program uses, you will always have at least 26 variables available to store
data. Each fixed variable is seven bytes long. There are two types of fixed variables: numeric
and string variables (alphanumeric characters). For a specific fixed variable, both variable
types share the same memory area. Once a variable has been declared a specific type
(numeric vs. string), it cannot be used as the other type.
Example:
A = 123
A$
The following message is displayed:
ERROR 91
This means that numeric data has been allocated to a memory area called "A" and then the
computer has been instructed to use this information as a string. The computer is confused
and gives an error message. Press .CLS./.CA. to clear the error message. Now the following is
entered:
A$ = "ABC"
A
Again the computer is confused and gives the error message ERROR 91. The variable A
corresponds in memory to the same area as the variable A$, furthermore B corresponds to the
same memory area as B$ and so on for all letters of the alphabet.
Each fixed character variable can contain up to 7 characters and symbols.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Program Operation
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5.2.3. Simple Variables
Simple variable names are specified by alphanumeric characters, e.g. AB or C8$. Unlike
fixed variables, the simple variables do not have a declared storage area in memory. The area
for simple variables is automatically allocated (within the program and data area) when the
simple variable is first used. Separate memory areas are provided for simple numeric and
simple string variables, even if they have the same name, e.g. AB and AB$ can be used
simultaneously.
While alphanumeric characters are used to name simple variables, the first character must
always be a capital letter. Two or more characters can be used to specify a variable name, but
the computer only reads the first two.
Note: Computer-resident names for functions and BASIC commands, e.g. Pl, IF,
TO, ON, SIN and others, cannot be used for variable names.
Each simple character variable can contain up to 16 characters and
symbols. Each fixed character variable can contain up to 7 characters and
symbols.
5.2.4. Array Variables
In some cases, it is useful to process numbers in organized groups, e.g. a table of football
results or a tax table. In BASIC, these groups are called arrays. An array can be one-
dimensional, e.g. a list, or two-dimensional, e.g. a table.
To define an array, use the DIM command (short for dimension). Arrays must always be
defined before use (unlike the single-valued variables we used so far). The format for
dimensioning numeric arrays is:
DIM array-name(size)
where:
array-name is the name of the array according to the above-mentioned naming rules
for numeric or string variables.
size is the number of storage locations in the array and should be a number in the range
of 0 to 255. When you specify a number, you get one more location than you specified.
Examples of allowed commands for numeric or string sizing:
DIM X(5)
→ X(0), X(1), X(2), X(3), X(4), X(5)
DIM AA(24)
DIM Q5(0)
The first command creates an array X with 6 storage locations. The second command creates
an array AA with 25 storage locations, the third is an array with one storage location, which is
illogical (at least for numbers), because one could just as well define a numeric variable.
It is important to know that an array-variable X and a variable X are separate in the computer.
The first X denotes a series of numeric memory locations, the second a single and different
memory location.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Program Operation
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Now that you know how to create arrays, you might be wondering how do you refer to each
storage location? Since the entire group has only one name, the way we refer to a single
storage location (called "element") is to follow the group name with a number in parenthesis.
This number is called "subscript". For example, to store the number 8 at the fifth position in
our (previously defined) array X, we would write:
X(4) = 8
If you are puzzled by the use of the number 4, remember that the numbering of array
elements starts with zero and continues until the number of elements declared in the DIM
statement.
The real power of arrays is the ability use an expression or a variable as an subscript.
The definition of a string array uses a slightly different form of the DIM statement:
DIM string-variable-name(size)[*length]
where:
string-variable name is the name for the string array that follows the
aforementioned rules for variable names.
Size is the number of storage locations and should be a number in the range of 0 to 255.
When you specify a number, you get one more location than you specified.
*Length is optional. If used, it will set the length of each string in the array. The length
must be specified by a number from 1 to 255. If no entry is given, the default setting of
16 characters is used for the string.
Examples of legal string array definitions:
DIM X$(4)
DIM NM$(10)*10
DIM IN$(1)*255
DIM R$(0)*26
The first example creates an array of five strings of 16 characters each. In the second
example, the DIM statement creates an array NM that contains 11 strings of 10 characters
each. This assignment is unusual as the length of the string is shorter than the default of 16.
The third example is a two-element array with a string length of 255 characters and in the last
example a single element string with 26 characters.
The computer can also handle "two-dimensional" arrays. A one-dimensional array lists a
sequence of data in a single column. A two-dimensional array corresponds to a table with
rows and columns. Two-dimensional arrays are determined by the following statement:
DIM numeric-array-name(rows,columns)
or
DIM string-array-name(rows,columns)[*length]
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where:
Rows is the number of lines in the array. It must be a number in the range of 0 to 255.
Assigning a number to rows will provide one row more than specified.
Columns is the number of columns in the array. It must be a number in the range of 0 to
255. Assigning a number to rows will provide one row more than specified.
The following table illustrates the storage locations that result from the DIM T(2,3)
instruction and the indexes associated with each storage location (two numbers in this
example):
Column 0
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3
Line 0
T (0,0)
T (0,1)
T (0,2)
T (0,3)
Line 1
T (1.0)
T (1,1)
T (1,2)
T (1,3)
Line 2
T (2,0)
T (2,1)
T (2,2)
T (2,3)
Note: Two-dimensional arrays take up a lot of space. For example, an array with
25 rows and 35 columns require 875 storage locations.
The following table shows the number of bytes needed to define each variable and the
number of bytes required for each individual program instruction.
Variable type
Number of bytes used
Variable Name
Array Element
Numeric variable
Numeric array variable
7 bytes
8 bytes
String variable
7 bytes
16 bytes
String array variable
7 bytes
Assigned number
For example: for DIM Z$(2,3)*10, 12 variables are provided with a storage space of 10
characters each. 127 bytes are required: 7 bytes (variable name) + 10 bytes (number of
characters) x 12.
5.3. Program and Data Files
Program and data files are fundamental in the use of your computer. Part of the computer's
internal memory can be used as a RAM disk. Programs stored on the RAM disk must be
loaded into the program data area (user area) before execution (See BASIC COMMAND
LEXICON for instructions on the commands SAVE, LOAD, KILL and FILES). Programs
can save data files to the RAM disk. Files to be stored on the RAM disc must be created in
TEXT mode under Rfile before they are used. (See TEXT mode under Rfile).
Element
Line number
Command & Function
ENTER and others
Number of bytes used
3 bytes
2 bytes
1 byte
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5.3.1. File Names
Before saving a file to the RAM disk, the file must have a name. This name is used to
identify the file to load into computer memory or to open with the OPEN command. The file
name is arbitrary and can consist of up to 8 of the following characters:
A…Z, a…z, 0…9, 1, $, %, 8, ', (, ), {, }, ", @
5.3.2. File Name Extensions
A file extension is an additional way to identify file types (such as BASIC program files, data
files, or text files). The extension consists of three characters at the end of a file name which
is separated from it by a period. The extension is specified when a file is saved.
BASIC programs automatically receive the .BAS extension if they are saved with the SAVE
command. When reloaded into memory using the LOAD command, the .BAS extension does
not need to be specified.
When the FILES or LFILES commands are used to list a directory of the RAM disk files,
BASIC programs will appear with the .BAS extension, unless some other extension was
specified by the user when the file was saved.
5.4. Expressions
An expression is a combination of variables, constants, and operators that can be evaluated
into a single value. The calculation examples you entered before were examples of
expressions. Expressions are an integral part of BASIC programs. For example, an
expression may be a formula that computes the result of an equation, or a test to determine
the relationship between two sizes, or a means to format a series of strings.
5.4.1. Numeric Operators
The computer has five numeric operators. These are the arithmetic operators that you used
when exploring the use of the computer as a calculator:
+ Addition
– Subtraction
* Multiplication
/
Division
^ Exponentiation
A numeric expression is constructed in the same way that you entered compound calculator
operations. Numeric expressions can contain any meaningful combination of numeric
constants, numeric variables, and the numeric operators:
(A*B)^2
A(2,3)+A(3,4)+5.0–C
(A/B)*(C+D)
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5.4.2. String Expressions
String expressions are similar to numeric expressions, except there is only a single string
operator: concatenation (+). This is the same symbol used for addition. When used with a
pair of strings, the + appends the second string to the end of the first string, creating a longer
string. Be careful in making complex string concatenations and other string operations
because the maximum work space for string calculations is 255 characters.
Note: String quantities and numeric quantities cannot be defined in the same
expression, unless you use one of the functions that converts string values
to numeric values, or vice versa:
"15" +10 is not allowed. "15" + "10" is "1510", not "25".
5.4.3. Relational Expressions
A relational expression compares two expressions and indicates whether the established
condition is true or false. The relational operators are:
>
greater than
>= greater than or equal to
=
equal
<> unequal
<= less than or equal to
<
less than
The following are valid relational expressions:
A < B
C(1,2) >= 5
D(3) <> 8
If A were equal to 10, B equal to 12, C(1,2) equal to 6, and D(3) equal to 9, all of these
expressions would be true.
Character strings can also be compared using relational expressions. The two strings are
compared character by character according to their ASCII value starting at the first character
(see Appendix H). If one string is shorter than the other, a 0 or NULL will be used for any
missing positions. All the following examples are true.
"ABCDEF" = "ABCDEF"
"ABCDEF" <> "ABCDE"
"ABCDEF" > "ABCDE"
Relational expressions are evaluated as true or false. The computer represents true with -1,
false with a 0.
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5.4.4. Logical Expressions
Logical operations use the Boolean algebra functions AND, OR, XOR, and NOT to build
connections between relational expressions. The logical operations in a single expression are
evaluated after arithmetic and relational operations.
In this way, logical operators can be used to make program decisions from multiple
conditions using the IF…THEN statement.
Example:
IF A<=32 AND B>=90 THEN 150
This statement causes the execution to jump to line 150 if the value of the numerical variable
A is less than or equal to 32 and, at the same time, the value of the numerical variable B is
greater than or equal to 90.
IF X<>13 OR Y=0 THEN 50
This statement causes the execution to jump to line 50, unless the variable X has the value
13, or the variable Y is not equal to 0.
In a logical operation involving two numbers in the range -32768 to +32767, the two
numbers are converted to 16-bit binary integers (in two's complement form), and the logical
connection is then evaluated for each corresponding bit of the two numbers.
The results returned by the logical operators for these bit evaluations, are listed below:
AND
OR
XOR
NOT
X Y X AND Y X Y X OR Y X Y X XOR Y X NOT X
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
0
1
0
1 0
0
1 0
1
1 0
1
0
1
0 1
0
0 1
1
0 1
1
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
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After each bit pair has returned the corresponding result (a 1 or 0) according to the above
tables, the resulting 16-bit binary number is converted back to a decimal vale. This number is
the results of the logical operation.
Example:
41 AND 27 →
41 = 101001 AND
equals
27 = 011011
9
← 001001
41 OR 27 →
41 = 101001 OR
equals
27 = 011011
59
← 111011
41 XOR 27 →
41 = 101001 AND
equals
27 = 011011
50
← 110010
NOT 3 →
3 = 0000000000000011 NOT
equals
________________
-4 (two’s complement form)
← 1111111111111100
5.4.5. Parenthesis and Operator Precedence
When working on complex expressions, the computer follows a predefined set of priorities
that determine the sequence in which the operators are evaluated. This can be quite
significant:
5 + 2 * 3 could be
5 + 2 = 7 or
2 * 3 = 6
7 * 3 = 21
6 + 5 = 11
The exact rules of “operator precedence” are on page 19.
To avoid having to remember all the rules and to make your programs more precise, always
use parentheses to specify the sequence of evaluation. The above example is clarified by
writing either:
(5 + 2) * 3 or 5 + (2 * 3)
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SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Programming in BASIC
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6. PROGRAMMING IN BASIC
In the previous chapter, we examined some of the concepts and terms of the BASIC
programming language. In this section we now want to use these elements to create
programs. However, this is not a manual on how to program in BASIC. This chapter will
familiarize you with the use of BASIC on your computer.
6.1. Programs
A program consists of a series of instructions to the computer. Remember that the computer
is only a machine. It will perform the exact operations that you specify. You, the
programmer, are responsible for issuing the correct instructions.
6.1.1. BASIC Statements
The computer interprets instructions according to a predetermined format. This format is
called statement. You must always enter the BASIC statements in the same pattern.
Statements must start with a line number:
Example:
10: INPUT A
20: PRINT A*A
30: END
6.1.2. Line Numbers
Each line of a program must have a unique line number – any integer between 1 and 65279.
Line numbers are the reference for the computer. They tell the computer the order in which
to run a program. You do not need to enter lines in sequential order (although if you are a
beginning programmer, it is probably less confusing for you to do so). The computer always
begins execution with the lowest line number and moves sequentially through the lines in
ascending order.
You can use the AUTO command to automatically insert line numbers. Each time you press
the
key, a new line number, with the correct increment, will automatically be inserted.
See the BASIC COMMAND Glossary for a full description of this useful function.
It is wise to allow increments of several numbers in your line numbering. (10, 20, 30, ... 10,
30, 50, etc.). This enables you to insert additional lines, if necessary. If you use the same line
number, the older line with that number is deleted when you enter the new one.
6.1.3. Labeled Programs
Often you will want to store several different programs in memory at the same time.
(Remember that each must have unique line numbers.) Normally, to start a program with a
RUN or GOTO command, you will normally need to remember the beginning line number of
each program. However, there is an easier way. You can label each program with
alphanumeric characters and run the program.
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Label the first line of each program you want to reference. The label consists of a letter and
up to 19 alphanumeric characters with a * in front or in quotes, followed by a colon.
Example:
10: *A: PRINT "FIRST"
20: END
80: "B": PRINT "SECOND"
90: END
Although both *Label and "Label" forms may be used, *label is recommended because it
executes more quickly and more visible in a program listing.
6.2. BASIC Commands
All BASIC statements must contain commands. These commands tell the computer what
action to perform. A command is contained within a program, and as such is not acted upon
immediately.
Some instructions require or allow an operand:
Example:
10: DATA "HELLO"
20: READ B$
30: PRINT B$
40: END
Operands provide information to the computer telling it what data the command will act
upon. Some commands require operands, while with other commands, they are optional.
Certain commands do not allow operands. (See the BASIC COMMAND GLOSSARY for
BASIC commands and their uses.)
Note: Commands, functions and variables entered in lower case characters will
be converted to uppercase characters.
6.2.1. Direct Commands
Direct commands are instructions to the computer that are entered outside of a program.
They instruct the computer to perform some immediate action or set modes that affect how
your programs are executed.
Direct commands have immediate effect – as soon as you complete entering direct
commands (by pressing the
key), the command will be executed. Direct commands are
not preceded by a line number.
RUN
NEW
RADIAN
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6.2.2. Modes (Operating Modes)
When you used the computer as a calculator, you were working in RUN mode. RUN mode is
also needed to execute the program you have entered. Use PRO mode if you want to enter or
edit programs.
6.3. Beginning to Program
To enter program statements into the computer, the computer must first be placed in PRO
(program) mode using the .BASIC. key. The following display will appear:
>
Enter the NEW command.
NEW
>
The NEW command clears the memory of all existing programs and data. The prompt appears
after you press the
key, indicating that the computer is awaiting input.
6.3.1. Entering and Running a Program
Make sure the computer is in PRO mode and enter the following program:
10PRINT .SHIFT. + ..".. HELLO .SHIFT. + .."..
PROGRAM MODE
NEW
10:PRINT"HELLO"_
Notice that the computer automatically inserts the colon between the number and the
command when you press the
key.
Check that the statement is in the correct format and then change the mode to RUN by
pressing the .BASIC. key.
.CLS. RUN
RUN
HELLO
>
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Since this is the only line of the program, the computer will exit the program and return to
the BASIC prompt “>”.
6.3.2. Editing a Program
Suppose you want to change the message that your program was displaying. That is, you
wanted to edit your program. With a single line program, you could just retype the entry, but
as you develop more complex programs, editing becomes a very important component of
your programming. Let’s edit the program you have just written.
Switch to PRO mode. You need to recall your program in order to edit it. Use the up arrow
key
to recall your program. If your program was completely executed, the
key will
recall the last line of the program. If there was an error in the program, or if you used the
.BREAK. key to stop execution, the
key will recall the line in which the error or break
occurred. To make changes in your program, use the
key to move up in your program
(recall the previous line) and the
key to move down in your program, display the next
line). If held down, the
or
key will scroll vertically (up or down) through your
program.
Remember that to move the cursor within the program line, you use the
(right arrow) and
(left arrow) keys. Using the
key, position the cursor over the first character you wish
to change:
10:PRINT "HELLO"
10 PRINT "HELLO"
Notice that the cursor is now in the flashing block form, indicating that it is on top of an
existing character. Enter:
GOODBYE .SHIFT. + ..".. .SHIFT. + ..!..
10 PRINT "GOODBYE"!
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Remember to press the
key at the end of the line. Change to RUN mode.
RUN
RUN MODE
RUN
ERROR 10 IN 10
The error message indicates the type of error, and the line number in which the error
occurred. Press the .CLS. key to clear the error condition and return to PRO mode. You must
be in PRO mode to make changes in a program. Using
(or
), recall the line in which
the error occurred.
(or
)
10 PRINT "GOODBYE"!
The flashing cursor is positioned over the error. You learned that when entering string
constants in BASIC, all characters must be contained within quotation marks. Use the .DEL.
key to eliminate the “!”.
.DEL.
10 PRINT "GOODBYE"_
Now let’s put the ! in the correct location. When editing programs, .DEL. and .INS. are used
in exactly the same way as they are in editing calculations. Using
, position the cursor on
top of the character that will be the first character following the insertion.
10 PRINT "GOODBYE"
Press the .INS. key. A will indicate where the new data will be entered.
.INS.
10 PRINT "GOODBYE"
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Enter the !. The display looks like this:
.SHIFT. + ..!..
10 PRINT "GOODBYE!"
Remember to press the
key so the correction will be entered into the program.
Note: If you wish to delete an entire line from your program, just enter the line
number and the original line will be eliminated. The DELETE command
can be used to delete more than one line at a time.
6.3.3. Using Variables in Programming
Using variables in programming allows more sophisticated use of the computer’s abilities.
The values assigned to a variable can change during the execution of a program, taking on
the value entered or computed during the program. One way to assign a variable is to use the
INPUT command. In the following program, the value of A$ will change in response to the
data typed in answer to the inquiry “WORD?”.
Enter the following program:
10:INPUT ”WORD?”;A$
20:B=LEN(A$)
30:PRINT “THE WORD (”;A$;”) HAS”
40:PRINT “HAS “;B;” LETTERS”
50:END
The second new element in this program is the use of the END statement to signal the
completion of the program. END tells the computer that the program is completed. It is
always good programming practice to use and END statement.
As your program become more complex, you may wish to review them before you begin
execution. To look at your program, use the LIST command. LIST, which can only be used
in PRO mode, displays programs beginning with the lowest number. Try listing this
program:
LIST
10:INPUT ”WORD?”;A$
20:B=LEN(A$)
30:PRINT “THE WORD (”;A$
;”)”
40:PRINT “HAS “;B;” LETT
ERS”
50:END
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Use the
and
keys to move through your program until you have reviewed the entire
program. After checking your program, change to RUN mode and run it.
.CLS. RUN
RUN
WORD?
HELP
RUN
WORD?HELP
RUN
WORD?HELP
THE WORD (HELP)
HAS 4. LETTERS
This is the end of your program. Of course you may begin it again by entering RUN.
However, this program would be a bit more entertaining if it presented more than one
opportunity for input. We will now modify the program so it will keep running without
entering RUN after each answer.
Return to PRO mode and use the
or
keys (or LIST) to reach line 50, or enter:
LIST50
50:END
You may enter 50 to delete the entire line or use the key to position the cursor over the E in
END. Change line 50 so that it reads:
50:GOTO 10
Now RUN the modified program.
The GOTO statement causes the program to loop (keep repeating the same operation). Since
you put no limit on the loop, it will keep going forever (an “infinite” loop). To stop this
program, press the .BREAK. key.
When you have stopped a program using the .BREAK. key, you can restart it using the CONT
command. The program will restart on the line that was being executed when the .BREAK.
key was pressed.
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6.3.4. More Complex Programming
The following program computes N factorial (N!). The program begins with 1 and computes
N! up to the limit that you enter. Enter this program:
100:F=1: WAIT 118
110:INPUT”LIMIT?”;L
120 FOR N=1 TO L
130:F=F*N
140:PRINT N,F
150:NEXT N
160:END
Several new features are contained in this program. The WAIT command in 100 controls the
time that displays are held before the program continues. The numbers and their factorials are
displayed as they are computed. The time they appear on the display is set by the WAIT
statement to approximately 2 seconds.
Notice that there are two statements in line 100 separated by a colon (:). You may put as
many statements as you wish on one line (separating each by a colon) up to a maximum of
254 characters including the
key. Multiple-statement lines can make a program hard to
read and modify, so it is good programming practice to use them only where the statements
are very simple or there is some special reason to want the statements on one line.
In this program, we have used the FOR command in line 120 and the NEXT command in line
150 to create a loop. In the previous example, you created an “infinite” loop that kept
repeating the statements inside the loop until you pressed the .BREAK. key. With this
FOR…NEXT loop, the computer adds 1 to N each time execution reaches the NEXT command.
It then tests to see if N is larger than the limit L. If N is less than or equal to L, execution
returns to the top of the loop and the statements are executed again. If N is greater than L,
execution continues at line 160 and the program stops.
You may use an fixed numeric variable or simple numeric variable in a FOR…NEXT loop.
You do not have to start counting at 1 and can increment by any amount at each step. See the
BASIC COMMAND GLOSSARY for details.
We have labeled this program with line numbers starting with 100. Labeling programs with
different line numbers allows you to have several programs in memory at one time. To RUN
this program instead of the one at line 10, change to RUN mode and enter:
.CLS.
RUN100
You could also give the program a name using a label and start the program with RUN
*LABEL.
If more than six lines must be displayed, the first lines will scroll up off the display and
cannot be recalled. Use the WAIT command in the program to display data more slowly, or
use the printer. The WAIT command applies to every PRINT command. Break long PRINT
commands into a number of shorter commands if the display scrolls too quickly.
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6.4. Debugging
After entering a new BASIC program, it will often not work the first time. Even if you are
entering a program that you know is correct, such as those provided in this manual, it is
common to make at least one typing error. It may also contain at least one logical error as
well.
Here are some general hints on how to find and correct your errors.
You run the program and receive an error message:
1. Switch back to PRO mode and use the cursor keys
or
key to review the line
with the error on display. The cursor is at the location where the error occurred.
2. If you cannot fine an obvious syntax error, the problem may be with the values that
are being used. For example, CHR$(A) generates a space if A is 1. Check the values
of the variables you are using in either RUN or PRO mode by entering the name of
the variable and pressing the
key.
You run the program with RUN and don’t get an error message, but the program doesn’t do
what you expect:
1. Check the program line by line using LIST and the
and
keys see if you
entered the program correctly. It is surprising how many errors can be corrected when
you take another look at the program.
2. Think about each line as you go through the program as if you were the computer.
Take simple values and try to apply the operation in each line to see if you get the
result you expected.
3. Insert one or more extra PRINT statements in the program to display key values and
key locations. Use these to isolate the parts of the program that are working correctly
and the location of the error. This approach is also useful for determining which parts
of a program have executed. You can also use STOP to temporarily halt execution at
critical points so that several variables can be examined.
4. Use TRON (TRace ON) and TROFF (TRace OFF), either as direct commands or
within the program to trace the flow of the program through individual lines. Stop to
examine the contents of critical variables at crucial points. This is a very slow way to
find a problem, but it is sometimes the only way.
6.4.1. Trace Mode
No matter how careful you are, eventually you will create a program that does not do what
you expect it to do. To isolate the problem, BASIC has a special method of executing
programs known as "Trace" mode.
TRON (TRace ON) starts Trace mode. The TRON instruction can be used as a direct
command (in RUN mode) or can be embedded within a program. Used as a direct command,
TRON informs the computer that tracing will be required during the execution of all
subsequent programs. The programs to be traced are then started in the usual fashion, using
the GOTO or RUN command.
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If TRON is used within a program, it will initiate Trace mode only when the line it is
executed. If, for some reason, the line is never reached, Trace mode will remain inactive.
6.4.2. Debugging Procedures
1. Set the computer to RUN mode.
2. Enter TRON
to specify trace mode.
3. Enter RUN
to run the program. After executing each line, the computer stops
execution and displays the current line number.
4. Use the
key to examine the current line. If the
key is held down, the program
continues execution line by line. Releasing the
key stops program execution. To
examine the contents of the last executed line, press and hold the
key. When the
key is released, the BASIC command prompt ">" appears. To resume execution,
press the
key.
5. If execution of the program is interrupted during data entry with the INPUT
statement, press
to continue program execution.
6. Continue the trace procedure and check if the program is executing properly by
confirming program execution order and variable contents after each line is executed.
If the program is not executing properly, correct the logic.
7. After debugging, enter TROFF
to exit trace mode.
Example:
10 INPUT "A =";A,"B =";B
20 C = A*2
30 D = B*3
40 PRINT "C =";C;"D =";D
50 END
Run the program.
RUN mode
TRON
>
RUN
A =_
8
B =_
9
10:
20:
30:
C = 16.
D = 27.
40:
If the execution is interrupted by the .BREAK. key, review the variables manually and check
that the values are as expected. Pressing the
key will execute one statement at a time and
entering CONT
will execute the statements continuously.
Note:
If a result or other information is displayed at the location specified by LOCATE,
the line number appears on the line after this. (See BASIC COMMAND
GLOSSARY for instructions on the LOCATE command)
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If a variable is accessed manually or a manual calculation is performed after
LOCATE was assigned, it assignment is lost.
Trace mode remains active until TROFF is entered, the .SHIFT. + .CA. keys are
pressed, or power is interrupted.
When executing a comment line in trace mode, no line number is displayed. In
this case, the number of the last executed line remains on the display.
To troubleshoot by interrupting a running program, do the following:
1. Press the .BREAK. key while running the program
2. Enter the STOP command at the appropriate location.
The computer indicates that the program has stopped and execution is interrupted.
Afterwards, manually check the contents of the variables. Press the
key to execute the
instructions line by line, CONT
for continuous execution.
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7. TEXT MODE
In TEXT mode (text editor) you can write and edit programs (BASIC, C, assembler or CASL)
in ASCII format. In the same way, data files can be created, edited or deleted. Programs as
well as data can be stored on the RAM disk or sent/received via the serial I/O interface.
BASIC instructions for the computer are stored in a 2-byte format called "intermediate code".
Since this code differs depending on the hardware or BASIC interpreter used, it cannot be
used for communication between personal computers or other devices. ASCII code is
commonly used for communication between personal computers because representation of
alphanumeric characters and primitive symbols is the same, regardless of the hardware used.
With TEXT mode, you can write, edit and save programs in ASCII. Programs can also be
converted from intermediate code (BASIC) to ASCII and vice versa. This section describes
the functions of TEXT mode.
When you press the .TEXT. key, you will see a screen
like the one on the right.
*** TEXT EDITOR ***
Edit Del Print
Sio File Basic Rfile
TEXT mode can be exited at any time by switching to another mode (RUN, PRO, ASMBL,
CASL, C). Data already entered is not lost and can be further edited by pressing .TEXT. + ..E..
(for Edit).
To get to the main menu from any submenu of TEXT mode, press the .TEXT. key. To go up
one menu level, press the .BREAK. key.
7.1. Functions in TEXT mode
In TEXT mode, the following functions are available:
Mode
Operation
Edit
Creating and editing programs or files
Del
Delete programs or files in the editor
Print
Send a program listing or data to the printer
Sio
Serial I/O port
Save
Send program or data via the serial interface
Load
Load program or data from the serial interface
Format
Configure the serial interface
File
Program file operations on the RAM Disk
Save
Store a program
Load
Load a program
Kill
Delete a program
Files
Retrieve/display all programs on the RAM disk
Basic
Convert file between BASIC and TEXT formats
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Basic←text Conversion from TEXT to BASIC
Text←basic Conversion from BASIC to TEXT
Rfile
Data file operations on the RAM disk
Init
Create data file
Save
Save data file
Load
Load data file
Kill
Delete data file
Files
Retrieve/display all data files on the RAM disk
7.1.1. Editing Programs and Files
Select the edit function from the main menu, press ..E...
In the edit function, the prompt in the command line
is "<" (instead of ">" in BASIC).
TEXT EDITOR
<
As with a BASIC program, each line of a TEXT program begins with a line number.
However, the computer does not automatically add a colon after the line number (:), as with
BASIC programs. Also, a space is not automatically inserted between commands. Each line
appears exactly as it is typed.
Note: - Line numbers are automatically sorted in ascending order.
- The range of possible line numbers for a program is from 1 to 65279. If
this range is exceeded or no line number is entered, an error message
(LINE NO ERROR) is displayed. Press .CLS. / .CA. to clear the error
message.
To return to the main menu press .BREAK..
Note: A TEXT line cannot begin with a number directly after the line number. If
the line should necessarily begin with a number, an apostrophe (') must be
inserted between the line number and the number.
50 '100 FORMAT (17X, A)
apostrophe
Line Number
(Example program) Enter the following program:
10INPUT A
20B=A*A
30PRINT A,B
40END
10INPUT .SPACE. A
10INPUT A
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20B =A*A
30PRINT .SPACE. A,B
40END
20B=A*A
30PRINT A,B
40END
7.2. TEXT Editor
A TEXT program is edited just like a BASIC program. (See the explanations for
programming in BASIC)
The TEXT mode edit commands correspond to BASIC commands. (For details of the
commands, see the explanations in the BASIC COMMAND GLOSSARY)
Commands:
A
Auto numbering (see also the AUTO command on page 177)
L
List the lines (see also the LIST command on page 210)
R
Renumber (see also RENUM command on page 226)
D
Delete lines (see also DELETE command on page 188)
C
Copy lines (see also LCOPY command on page 205)
S
Search for string
E
Find and replace string
If the R command is executed in a TEXT program that was converted by a BASIC program,
only the line numbers at the beginning of a line are renumbered, while the line numbers
within GOTO, THEN, GOSUB, or RESTORE statements are not. In this case, the program does
not run when it is converted back to BASIC.
A
Auto
Format:
A [[start-line-number][,interval]]
Description: After starting A, the first line number appears in the display with a trailing
cursor. The desired content can now be entered. Pressing the
key,
generates the next line number and so on.
L
List
Format:
L
L line number
L label
Description: Lists the program from the beginning or from the specified line number or
labels.
R
Renumber
Format:
R [oldline[,newline][,interval]]
Description: Re-number all rows or specified rows with specified interval.
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D
Delete
Format:
D start line number[,[endline number]]
Description: Deletes the specified line or all lines from the specified start line up to and
including the specified end line number. The remaining syntax variants
correspond to the DELETE command.
C
Copy
Format:
C startline,endline,destination
Description: Copies the lines startline … endline to destination.
Caution: Jump addresses are not changed in BASIC commands
S
Search
Format:
S [0|1,] string
Description: Searches for a string in the text file. If the string is found, the cursor is placed
on the first character of the matching string. Press
to move the cursor to
the next matching string. .CLS. ends the search. The search string may have a
maximum length of 16 characters. Specifying 0 or 1 determines the search
direction:
1: Search forwards from the beginning of the file.
0: Search backwards from the end of the file.
If this parameter is not specified, the search will start from the beginning of
the file (1).
When searching for a " (double quotation mark), use ¥" as a string for ". For
example: S "¥"".
E
Replace
Format:
S [0|1,] search string, replacement string
Description: Finds and replaces a string in the editor. If the string is found, the cursor is
placed on the first digit of the matching string. Press
to move the cursor to
replace the characters and jump to the next matched string. .SPACE. does not
replace the string and the cursor is moved to the next matching string. .CLS.
ends the search.
Strings may have a maximum length of 16 characters. Specifying 0 or 1
determines the search direction:
1: Search forwards from the beginning of the file.
0: Search backwards from the end of the file.
When searching for a " (double quotation mark), use ¥” as a string for ". For
example: E "¥""
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7.2.1. The .TAB. Key
In EDIT mode, pressing the .TAB. key moves the cursor to the next column. When the.TAB.
key is first pressed, the cursor moves to column 8. At the next press, the cursor moves to
column 14 (6 digits after the first tab position). Each subsequent press of the .TAB. key
moves the cursor seven places forward (to 21, 28, etc.…).
7.3. Delete TEXT Memory (Del)
Select the delete function from the TEXT menu, press ..D...
*** TEXT EDITOR ***
TEXT DELETE OK? (Y)
If the ..Y.. key is pressed, the entire TEXT memory area is completely deleted, including the
TEXT program, and the main menu is displayed.
If any key other than ..Y.. is pressed, the computer returns to the main menu without deleting
anything.
Note: If no text is stored in the TEXT memory, the computer will not respond to
the ..D.. key and returns to the main menu.
7.4. Print TEXT Program (Print)
Connect the CE-126P printer to the computer and turn on the computer and the printer.
Display the TEXT main menu and press ..P.. to print the stored TEXT program.
*** TEXT EDITOR ***
--- PRINTING ---
After printing, the computer displays the main menu.
Note: To cancel printing, press .BREAK.. If the printer is not turned on or is not
connected to the computer, the computer will not respond to ..P.. when the
main menu is displayed.
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7.5. Serial Input/Output (SIO)
Pressing the ..S.. key in the TEXT main menu will display the serial input / output menu
(SIO menu). Select the corresponding function Save (send), Load (receive) or Format
from the SIO menu by entering the first letter of the function (S, L or F).
<< SIO >>
Save Load Format
7.5.1. Set I/O Parameters (Format)
Serial communication parameters can be set with this menu. The communication parameters
must match the device that this computer will communicate with. To display a help menu
from the SIO menu, press ..F...
<< SIO >>
Select ←,→,↑,↓ key
Set ↲ key
--- Push any key ---
Press any key or wait until the computer
displays the communication settings.
→baud rate =1200
data bit =8
stop bit =1
parity =none
end of line =CR LF
end of file =1A
→ indicates the chosen parameter. You can move → to a different setting to change with the
or
keys. There are a total of seven settings that can be set. With the
key, you can
scroll through all the settings on the display.
The
and
keys change values of the setting indicated by →. However, the setting for
the "end of file" must be entered manually. After entering the changes, press
to
save the changes. If the new settings are not saved, the computer will use the previously set
parameters.
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Communication Parameters
baud rate
: 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600
Sets the baud rate. The baud rate is the speed that data is transmitted,
the higher rate, the faster the speed. Allowable baud rates are 300,
600, 1200, 2400, 4800 and 9600 bps (bits per second).
data bit
: 7 or 8
Specifies the number of bits needed to represent a character. It can be
set to either 7 or 8 bits.
stop bit
: 1 or 2
Specifies the length of the stop bit at the end of character.
parity
:
none, even or odd
Specifies the type of data check (parity check).
none : no parity.
even : even parity.
odd : odd parity.
end of line : CR, LF or CR + LF
Specifies the code for the end of each program line.
CR
: carriage return.
LF
: line feed.
CR + LF : both CR and LF.
end of file : 00 to FF (two-digit hexadecimal number)
Specifies the code to indicate the end of a program or other file.
line number : yes or no
Specifies whether a TEXT program is sent with or without line
numbers.
yes : the program is sent with line numbers.
no : the program is sent without line numbers.
Line number also determines whether a line number (in increments of
10) should automatically be added to each program line upon receipt.
yes : no line numbers are added. "yes" is selected if the program
already contains line numbers.
no : line numbers are automatically added.
If the received file does not contain line numbers, even though "yes"
was set, an error message (LINE NO, ERROR) is displayed.
flow
: RS/CS, Xon/Xoff, or none
Specifies how information exchanged through the serial port is
controlled.
RS / CS : flow control is controlled by the RS/CS signals.
Xon/Xoff : flow control is through the Xon/Xoff protocol
none
: transmission is carried out without any flow control.
The settings apply to all subsequent FOPEN(“stdaux1”), or OPEN "COM1" commands.
Once the settings have been changed and saved, these new parameters will apply until the
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RESET button is pressed to clear the memory, the battery is replaced, or the settings are
changed again.
7.5.2. Send Program (Save)
Pressing the ..S.. key in the SIO menu will send a program or data stored in TEXT memory
to the serial I/O port.
<< SIO >>
--- SENDING ---
After sending is complete, the computer returns to the SIO menu.
Note:
1) To cancel the transmission, press the .BREAK. key. The computer returns to the
SIO menu.
2) If there is no program or data stored in TEXT memory, the computer will not
respond to the ..S.. key.
7.5.3. Receive Program (Load)
Pressing the ..L.. key in the SlO menu will load data from the serial I/O port to TEXT
memory.
<< SIO >>
--- RECEIVING ---
After receiving is complete, the computer returns to the SIO menu.
Note:
1. To cancel the reception, press the .BREAK. key. The computer goes back to the
SIO menu.
2. If the program was not received correctly or if a parity error occurred, an error
message will appear (l/O DEVlCE ERROR). To clear the error message, press
.CLS / CA..
7.5.4. Printing
Pressing the ..L.. key in the main menu will allow printing via the parallel interface
(Centronics protocol).
For more information on using the parallel interface, see also INP and OUT commands.
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7.6. Program File Management (File)
Pressing the ..F.. key in the main menu will display the ram disk file menu.
<< PROGRAM FILE >>
Save Load Kill Files
From this menu, the corresponding function "Save, Load, Delete, or View Files" is selected
by entering the first letter of the function (S, L, K or F).
7.6.1. Save TEXT Program (Save)
Pressing the ..S.. key in the program file menu prompts for a name for the TEXT file. Enter
the file name and press
. The computer now saves the contents of TEXT memory in this
file.
Saving a file with the file name "TEST".
..S..
<< PROGRAM FILE >>
→Save Load Kill Files
FILE NAME=?
..T.. ..E.. ..S.. ..T..
<< PROGRAM FILE >>
→Save Load Kill Files
FILE NAME=?TEST
The computer saves the file "TEST" and then returns to the program file menu.
Note:
You must enter a file name. If the
key is pressed without entering a
name, ILLEGAL FILE NAME error is displayed. To clear the error, press
.CLS..
A file name can consist of up to eight characters and an extension of up to
three characters. If no extension is entered, the computer automatically
assigns the extension .TXT.
If there is no TEXT program is stored in TEXT memory, saving is
aborted.
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7.6.2. Load TEXT Program (Load)
Pressing the ..L.. key in the program file menu displays a list of stored files. "LOAD →"
points to the first file name (if no program has been saved, the computer will not respond to
the ..L.. key).
Example of a list of files
LOAD → ABC
.TXT 456
PRO
.TXT 1234
.BAS 1567
TEST
.TXT 789
Use the
and
keys to move "LOAD →" to the name of the file to be loaded; then press
. The computer loads the contents of the selected file into the TEXT area and then returns
to the file menu.
Note: Only programs and files created in TEXT mode can be loaded. Trying to
load a program that was saved using the BASIC SAVE command results in
a FILE MODE ERROR. To clear the error, press .CLS..
7.6.3. Delete Program File (Kill)
This function deletes a file. Pressing the ..K.. key in the program file menu prompts for the
name of the file to be deleted.
<< PROGRAM FILE >>
Save Load →Kill Files
FILE NAME=?
Enter the name of the file to be deleted and press
. The computer then asks for
confirmation.
FILE DELETE OK? (Y)
Pressing the ..Y.. key confirms the deletion. Any other key will cancel the deletion and the
program file menu will be displayed. If the file name does not contain an extension, the
suffix .TXT is added by default.
If the specified file does not exist, the computer issues a FILE NOT FOUND error.
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7.6.4. List File Names (Files)
Pressing the ..F.. key in the program file menu displays a list of all stored files. A "→" points
to the first file name on the list. (If no files are stored, the computer does not respond to the
..F.. key).
Example of a list of files.
LOAD → ABC
.TXT 456
PRO
.TXT 1234
.BAS 1567
TEST
.TXT 789
The list can be scrolled by pressing the
and
keys.
To load a program marked with →, press .SHIFT. + ..M.. (or .2ndF. + ..M..).
7.6.5. About TEXT files
The size of the text file is the total number of bytes for each line. The number of bytes in
each line is calculated from the line number (3 bytes), the linefeed (1 byte) and the number of
characters in the text of the line.
Example:
10_INPUT_A
results in 3 + 8 + 1 = 12 bytes for this line.
When converting to BASIC code, the program length becomes shorter because the BASIC
keywords require fewer bytes.
7.7. BASIC Converter (Basic)
This function converts a BASIC program in intermediate code into a TEXT file in ASCII
code or vice versa. This feature is useful for editing BASIC programs written for the
G850V(S) on a personal computer.
Pressing ..B.. in the main menu will show the BASIC converter menu.
<< BASIC CONVERTER >>
Basic→text Text←basic
From this menu, conversion from TEXT to BASIC or from BASIC to TEXT can be selected.
Enter the first letter of the format you want to convert to.
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7.7.1. Conversion of TEXT and BASIC Programs
Pressing the ..B.. key in the BASIC converter menu converts the TEXT program in TEXT
memory into a BASIC program and saves it to program memory.
Pressing the ..T.. key in the BASIC converter menu converts the BASIC program in program
memory into a TEXT program and saves it to TEXT memory.
Example:
Convert a TEXT program into BASIC.
..B..
<< BASIC CONVERTER >>
--- CONVERTING ---
After conversion, the computer returns to the main menu. (Converting a short program takes
very little time to convert.)
If there is a BASIC program loaded while a TEXT program is being converted, or vice versa,
the computer asks for confirmation on whether the existing program should be deleted before
the conversion.
Basic→text Text←basic
BASIC DELETE OK? (Y)
When you press ..Y.., the computer deletes the existing BASIC program and begins the
conversion. Pressing any other key will cancel the conversion and the computer will return to
the main menu.
In general, the computer keeps the original program after it has been converted to another
format. However, if there is not enough memory available after a program has been
converted, the computer asks for confirmation on whether the original program should be
deleted.
--- CONVERTING ---
TEXT DELETE OK? (Y)
Pressing the ..Y.. key will clear the original program during the process of conversion. At the
end of the conversion, the original program is deleted. Pressing any other key will cancel the
conversion and the computer will return to the main menu.
7.7.2. Out of Memory when Using the TEXT/BASIC Converter
If during a BASIC conversion the computer detects that there is not enough memory to hold
both versions, the source version will be deleted line by line during the conversion. If the
target program takes too much memory, it may cause the conversion to abort. As a result,
part of the program is in source format and the rest is in target format and is therefore no
longer usable. If you anticipate such a situation (i.e. in the case of low memory), you should
first save the source program via the serial interface or print it out for emergencies.
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7.8. Data File Management (RFILE)
With this function, data files are created, deleted, loaded into the TEXT editor or saved by
the editor.
When the ..R.. key is pressed while the main menu is displayed, the computer shows the data
file menu (RFILE).
<< RAM DATA FILE >>
Init Save Load Kill
Files
Enter the first letter of the function (I, S, K, L, or F) to select the corresponding function (File
Create (Init), Save, Load, Delete (Kill) or View (Files)).
7.8.1. Create File (Init)
Pressing the ..I.. key in the data file menu will prompt for the name of the file to be created.
Example:
To create the file TEST.
TEST.DAT
→Init Save Load Kill
Files
FILE NAME=TEST.DAT
→Init Save Load Kill
Files
FILE SIZE=?
The size of the file must be specified in bytes. The size must be chosen so that all the
necessary data fits into the file.
Example:
Create a 1024 byte file.
1024
→Init Save Load Kill
Files
FILE NAME=1024
If the specified file has already been created, the computer asks whether the file should be
reinitialized with the prompt FILE INITIALZE OK? (Y).
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Pressing the ..Y.. key will reinitialize the file and all previous data is lost. Any other key
aborts the re-initialization.
Note:
1. If a file extension is not included in the file name, the extension .DAT is
automatically appended.
2. The file name can have a maximum length of 8 characters.
3. One file occupies the specified number of bytes in memory plus 34 additional bytes
4. If there is not enough space left in the memory to create the file, the computer
displays MEMORY OVER
7.8.2. Load Data File (load)
When you press the ..L.. key in the data file menu, the computer displays a list of stored files;
where ""LOAD →" points to the first file name (if no files have been saved, the computer
will not respond to the ..L.. key).
Here is an example of a list of saved files.
LOAD → TEST
.DAT 1024
ABC
.DAT 512
SAMPLE .DAT 2048
Use the
and
keys to move "LOAD →" to the name of the file to be loaded; then press
. The computer loads the contents of the selected file into the TEXT area and then returns
to the program file menu.
7.8.3. Delete Data File (Kill)
This function deletes a specific file.
When you press ..K.. in the data file menu, the computer asks for the name of the file to be
deleted.
file menu (RFILE).
<< RAM DATA FILE >>
Init Save Load Kill
Files
FILE NAME=?
Enter the name of the file to be deleted and press
. The computer then asks for
confirmation that the file should be deleted.
FILE DELETE OK? (Y)
Pressing ..Y.. confirms the deletion. Any other key will cancel the deletion and the file menu
will be displayed. If no file name extension is specified, the suffix .DAT is added by default.
If the specified file does not exist, the computer displays FILE NOT FOUND.
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7.8.4. List Data Files (Files)
Pressing ..F.. in the program file menu will display a list of all stored files. → points to the
first file name of the list. (If no files are stored, the computer does not respond to the ..F..
key.)
LOAD → TEST
.DAT 1024
ABC
.DAT 512
SAMPLE .DAT 2048
The hidden parts of the list can be scrolled by pressing the
and
keys. To load a data
file marked with the →, press .SHIFT. + ..M.. (or .2ndF. + ..M..).
7.8.5. Save Data File (Save)
Pressing ..F.. while the data file menu displayed, prompts for the name of the file to be saved.
Init →Save Load Kill
Files
FILE NAME=?
Enter the file name of a previously created data file and press
. The computer the saves
the file.
Example:
Saving a file with the filename "TEST".
TEST
Init →Save Load Kill
Files
FILE NAME=TEST.DAT
The computer then prompts FILE OVERWRITE OK? (Y). Pressing ..Y.. saves the file
"TEST.DAT" and then returns to the data file menu. Any other key aborts the SAVE
function.
If the file was not previously created with INIT, the computer issues the error message FILE
NOT FOUND and cancels the function.
Note:
If the file to be saved is larger than the size specified in the Init function, the
computer aborts the action and displays the error message MEMORY OVER.
After selecting a function from the file menu, it is essential to enter a file name. If
the
key is pressed without entering a name, an ILLEGAL FILE NAME error
will be displayed. To clear the error message, press .CLS..
A file name can consist of up to eight characters and an extension of up to three
characters. If no extension is entered, the computer automatically assigns the
extension ".DAT".
If no data is stored in the TEXT area, saving cannot be performed.
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8. THE C PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
This chapter describes the differences between the C language on large computers (such as
UNIX) and on the SHARP PC-G850. This chapter does not teach you how to program in C.
Numerous books are available to learn how to program in C.
8.1. Properties of the C Programming Language
C is a very compact language. On one hand, C is a higher programming language, on the
other hand, it is possible to use detailed processing notations that are very close to machine
language.
While other higher programming languages (such as BASIC, FORTRAN, etc.) restrict access
to the underlying hardware with PEEK and POKE, the C language makes it possible to write
programs which directly access the hardware and memory, much like an assembly program.
Programming in C can be compared to assembly language, however, it is much more
efficient.
With its structured programming, C is easy to read and easy to understand. Thus, it is very
powerful for program development. In addition, there are a variety of data types for
processing data and numeric functions. Therefore, there is a wide range of applications for C,
be it professional, private or scientific.
C programs are very compact. In addition, programs are very efficient due to the use of
pointers.
Programs written in C are highly portable despite hardware-related programming. C
programs can usually be run on other computer systems with few changes.
The C language is very powerful. This also has the disadvantage that programs can be written
obscurely, as there are often several methods to solve a task.
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8.2. The C Compiler
Since the computer does not understand the C statements directly, the C program must be
compiled before execution. This usually requires the following steps:
Start Programming
Mode: .TEXT. → ..E..
Create program in the TEXT editor
Error in Compiling?
Mode: .SHIFT. + .TEXT.
Select the C compiler
Mode: ..C..
Create an executable program
Mode: ..G..
Execute compiled program
Runtime error?
Error-free run?
Finished
NO
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
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8.2.1. Call the Text Editor:
.TEXT. → ..E..
TEXT EDITOR
<
8.2.2. Enter the C Source Program:
10 main ()
20 {
30 printf (“Hello World ¥n”);
40 }
Switch to CAPS mode to enter the commands. Similar to BASIC, each line must be preceded
by a line number (without the following colon). By contrast, the C compiler doesn’t do
anything with the line numbers. They are internally ignored during compilation. They are
used only for editing.
The editor functions can be found in the chapter on TEXT mode.
8.2.3. Compile the Source Program
Call the C compiler menu:
.SHIFT. → .TEXT.
*** C ***
Compile Trace Go Stdout
The following commands are available:
Compile : Compile the program in the TEXT Editor
Trace
: Run the Program in Trace Mode (Step by Step)
Go
: Run the Program
Stdout
: Switch the standard output to the printer
The respective command is selected by entering the first letter.
8.2.4. Compile
Press the ..C.. key. The message “compiling” appears briefly. If the program compiles
properly, the message “complete!” appears shortly afterwards
*** C ***
Compile Trace Go Stdout
complete!
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If an error message appears instead, the program must be corrected with the editor (.TEXT. →
..E..) and recompiled.
If the error MEMORY FULL appears, there is insufficient free memory to create the
executable program.
8.2.5. Running the Program
Execute the program by pressing the key ..G.. in the C menu.
Hello World
*EXIT (40)
“• EXIT” indicates the number of the line where the program finished execution. To return
to C menu, press the .CLS. or .BREAK. key.
Below are the descriptions of the runtime errors.
8.3. Trace
In order to locate errors in a program, it may be helpful to execute the program step by step
and observe what the program does in detail and examine the contents of the variables. The
TRACE function can be used in the C compiler menu for this purpose. The trace function is
explained using this example.
10 main ()
20 {
30 int i, gokei = 0;
40 for (i = 1; i <51; i ++) {
50 gokei += i;
60 printf (“ 1 + ... +% d =% d¥n”, i, gokei);
70 }
80 }
8.3.1. Start TRACE Mode
Trace mode is started by pressing the ..T.. button in the C menu.
?10 main()
Each command is shown in the display and executed by pressing
. Each subsequent
command is run by pressing
. Press the .BREAK. button to enter pause mode.
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Functions in Pause Mode:
: Exit the pause mode and continue the program.
..C.. : Exit the pause mode and continue the program.
..A.. : Cancel the trace mode and return to the compiler menu.
..T..
: Continue Trace
..N.. : Resume normal compilation of the program (without further tracing).
..D.. : Enter variable mode
In variable mode, enter the name of the variable to display its contents.
.BREAK.
..D.. i
1+...+1 = 1
40 for(i-1;i<51;i++) {
Break>D
var>i
int : 2(0x0002)
var>_
In this example, the variable i currently has the value 2. Pressing .BREAK. will exit variable
mode
8.4. Redirecting Screen Output to the Printer
If the CE-126P printer (sold separately) is connected and ready to use, press ..S.. on the C
compiler menu screen. This will change the display from stdout (screen output) to stdprn
(printer output).
Press the ..S.. key again to switch to screen output. If the program explicitly uses stdprn, the
output will be directed to the printer, regardless of what is specified in the compiler menu.
stdout: output on the screen
stdprn: output on the printer
The following C commands depend on the setting in this menu:
putc
fputc
fputs
fprintf
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8.5. Functional Diagram of the C Compiler
Compile
Trace
Go
Stdout
Stdprn
Compiler
Error while
compiling
Program
execution
Normal
termination
Trace modes
Debug
Mode
breakpt()
.BREAK.
Abnormal
termination
Trace Mode
.BREAK.
breakpt()
abort()
exit()
abort()
exit()
.SHIFT. +
.TEXT.
..C..
..D..
..T..
..G..
..T..
..C..
..N..
..A..
.BREAK.
.BREAK.
Change of output
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8.6. C Programming Basics
This section only deals with the specific features of the C compiler in the SHARP PC-G850.
8.6.1. Formatting Options for Output (i.e. printf)
command
output
%d
Integer decimal number
%x
Integer hexadecimal number
%o
Integer octal number
%f
Floating point
%s
String
%c
Single sign
8.6.2. Variable Types
Type
Subtype
Range
Size
Integer
char
-128 to +127
8-bit
unsigned char
0 to 255
8-bit
int
-32768 to +32767
16-bit
unsigned int
0 to 65535
16-bit
short
-32768 to +32767
16-bit
unsigned short
0 to 65535
16-bit
long
-2147483648 to +2147483647
32-bit
Unsigned long
0 to 4294967295
32-bit
Real
float
± 1x10-99 to ± 9,999x10+99
32-bit
Double
± 1 x 10-99 to ± 9.999999999 x 10+99
64-bit
long double
± 1 x 10-99 to ± 9.999999999 x 10+99
64-bit
Unsigned: Unsigned works without a sign. Thus, the full number of bits is available for the
number.
Variable Names
Variable names may consist of lower case, capital letters and numbers (no Kana characters)
and must always begin with a letter. Special characters are not allowed.
A variable name has a maximum length of 31 characters. Extra characters are ignored.
A variable cannot have the same name as a keyword.
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8.6.3. Operators
Comparison Operators
Expression
Comparison
a==b
True if a equals b
a!=b
True if a is not equal to b
a<b
True if a is less than b
a>b
True if a is larger than b
a<=b
True if a is less than or equal to b
a>=b
True if a is greater than or equal to b
Arithmetic Operators
Operator
Operation
Example
+
addition
a + b
–
subtraction
a – b
*
multiplication
a * b
/
division
a / b
%
modulo
a % b
Assignment Operators
Operator
Example
Definition
Arithmetic operation
=
a = b
Replace a with b
+=
a += b
Add a to the contents of b
a = a + b
–=
a –= b
Subtract b from the contents of a
a = a – b
*=
a *= b
Multiply a by the contents of b
a = a * b
/=
a /= b
Divide a by the content of b
a = a / b
%=
a %= b
a is the remainder of the division of a by b
a = a % b
Increment / Decrement Operators
Operator
Example
Definition
Arithmetic operation
++
++a
Increment a by 1 then use
a = a + 1
++
a++
Use a then increment by 1
--
--a
Decrement a by 1 then use
a = a – 1
--
a--
Use a then decrement by 1
Logical Operators
operator
Example
Definition
&&
a&&b
Logical AND of a and b (1 if neither a nor b is 0)
||
a||b
Logical OR of a and b (1 if neither a nor b is 0)
!
!a
Logical NOT (if a <> 0, then 0, if a = 0 then 1)
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Bitwise Operators
Operator
Example
Definition
&
a&b
Bitwise AND
|
a|b
Bitwise OR
^
a^b
Bitwise XOR
~
~a
Bitwise NOT
Shift Operators
Operator
Example
Definition
<<
a<<b
shift a one bit to the left b times
>>
a>>b
Shift a one bit to the right b times
Keywords
auto
double
int
struct
break
else
long
switch
case
enum
register
typedef
char
extern
return
union
const
float
short
unsigned
continue
for
signed
void
default
goto
sizeof
volatile
do
if
static
while
Escape Control Characters
control character
Hex value
description
¥b
0x08
Backspace
¥n
0x0A
Newline
¥r
0x0D
Go to the beginning of the line
¥t
0x09
Tab (jump to the next tab stop)
¥¥
0x5C
The character ¥
¥’
0x2C
The character ‘
¥”
0x22
The character “
¥?
0x3F
The character ?
¥ddd
The characters as a 3-digit octal number
¥xhh
The characters as a hexadecimal number.
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8.7. C SYNTAX
8.7.1. Compound Instructions
Statements surrounded by curly brackets are treated by the computer as a group or as a
standalone statement. The only difference is that there is no semicolon behind the closing
bracket at the end of the compound statement
{
Instruction 1
Instruction 2
⋮
Instruction n
}
8.7.2. Conditional Jumps
If…else
Format:
1) if (expression)
statement
If the expression is true, the statement will be
executed.
2) if (expression)
statement1
else
statement2
If the expression is true, statement1 is executed,
otherwise, statement2 is executed
3) if (expression1)
statement1
else if (expression2)
statement2
else
statement3
If expression1 is true, execute statement1.
If expression1 is false and expression2 is true, execute
statement2,
otherwise, statement3 is executed.
switch…case
Format:
switch (expression) {
case const-expression1: statement1
[break;]
case const-expression2: statement2
[break;]
⋮
case const-expression#: statement#
[break;]
default: statement
}
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8.7.3. Loops
for
Format: for (expression1, expression2, expression3)
statement
expression1: initialize loop.
expression2: after executing expression1, expression2 is checked and if true,
the statement is executed.
expression3: execute expression3 with every iteration of the loop. Execution
continues until expression2 is false.
while
Format: while (expression)
statement
statement is repeated as long as expression is true.
do-while
Format:
do
statement
while (expression)
statement is executed and then expression is checked. If true, the statement is
executed again.
8.7.4. Unconditional Jumps
goto
Format:
goto label
⋮
label: instruction
The goto statement continues program execution at the specified label.
continue
The continue statement aborts the current loop and starts the next iteration of a while, do-
while, or for loop.
for (i = 0; i<100; i++) {
⋮
if (i%2 == 0)
continue;
printf (“%d\n"NN, i);
}
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break
The break statement immediately aborts the next outer switch, while, do-while, or for
statement.
for (i = 0; i <100; i ++) {
⋮
if (a[i] <0)
break;
⋮
}
return
Return returns to the calling program. A return value can be passed (not null).
Example:
return (expression);
or
return;
8.8. Storage Classes
Storage classes are used to define storage areas for variables and to define the extent (area
from which the program can read / write).
storage class
range of validity
auto
short-term storage within a program
register
For frequent access. Variables for increasing the execution speed by
assigning values to a register (otherwise like auto).
static
Reserves an area during program execution. Value access and
corresponding actions throughout the program.
external
File-external or function-external global variables.
8.9. Arrays
The C compiler supports the use of up to eight-dimensional arrays. Example for a two-
dimensional array:
char color[3][6] (3 rows by 6 columns of characters)
The same statement with assignment of values:
char color[3][6] = {“white”, “red”, “blue”};
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8.10. Structures
Structures defines a new data type which unites components of different types. With the help
of struct, data structures can be generated.
The type declaration
struct struct-identifier {
data-declaration
};
allows the declaration of variables of this type
struct-identifier var-identifier;
Example: Declaration of a data type for storing the personal data of a student.
// Structure
{
// new structure
struct Student {
long long int ID;
int skz;
char surname[30], first name[20];
};
// create variables of type Student
Student arni, robbi;
// Data input
cout << endl << "First Name:";
cin >> arni.firstname;
⋮
robbi = arni;
// copy record
cout << robbi.firstname << endl;
}
The assignment robbi = arni; copies the entire record from one variable to another.
Access to the component first name of the variable arni (of type Student) is made via
arni.name
The data are stored in the form
ID
skz surname
first name
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8.11. Compiler Runtime Options
#include “file”
Inserts the contents of the file at the appropriate place in the source file before compilation.
Similarly, certain parts of the source code can be included or ignored during compilation,
depending on the results of conditional testing.
For example, with the #include command, header files can be inserted. This is usually not
necessary with this computer.
#define name [value]
This defines symbols, constants or macros for the program (for example, to perform tests, see
#ifdef and #ifndef).
Examples:
#define TEST
#define PI 3.141592
#define NULL 0
#define EOF -1
#define FILE int
Macros can also be defined:
#define SQR(x)((x)*(x))
#if ... #elif ... #else ... #endif
With #if, similar to #ifdef, a conditional expression can be initiated. Constant
expressions can be evaluated as well.
#if expression1
statement1
[#elif expression2
statement2]
[#else expression3
statement3]
#endif
#ifdef name ... #endif
The #ifdef command can be used to check if a symbol has been defined. If the symbol is
defined, the code following the command will be passed to the compiler. An #ifdef
directive must be completed by a #endif directive.
#ifndef name ... #endif
The #ifndef command is the counterpart to #ifdef. It checks if a symbol is not defined.
If the symbol is defined, the code following the command will not be passed to the compiler.
An #ifndef command must be terminated by an #endif.
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8.12. Library Functions
This section explains the library functions of the C compiler. In this computer, the standard
input and output devices (stream) are defined as follows:
Input
stream: stdin
Keyboard
Output
stream: stdout (or stdprn)
Screen (or printer)
Serial
stream: stdaux
Half duplex over 11-pin
stream: stdaux1
Full duplex over 11-pin
In addition, the following constants are defined by default:
#define NULL 0
#define EOF -1
#define FILE int
When redirecting to the printer with .SHIFT. (or .2ndF.) +
(.PNP.), the input functions
return the following:
getch:
0xFF
all other input functions: EOF
The delimiters when the input is through the serial interface are:
Row separator:
0x0d, 0x0a or 0x0d + 0x0a
End of file:
0x1a
(The input from 0x0d + 0x0a is converted to 0x0a) You should normally use 0x0a as a
row separator.
The delimiters when the output is via the serial interface are:
Separator: null
(The output of 0x0a (row separation) is converted to 0x0d + 0x0a)
8.12.1. Standard I/O Functions
getc, getchar, fgetc
Format:
int getc (FILE* stream);
int getchar (void);
int fgetc (FILE* stream);
Description:
A character is read. If read by stdin, the character is not transmitted until
is pressed.
getc:
Reads a character from the given stream.
getchar: Reads a character from stdin.
fgetc:
Reads a character from the specified stream.
Return Value: the read character
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gets, fgets
Format:
char* gets (char* s);
char* fgets (char* s, int n, FILE* stream);
Description:
Characters are read and stored in the string s.
gets:
Reads characters from stdin to
. Before saving the string,
carriage returns / line feeds will be replaced by 0x00 (¥0).
fgets: Reads characters from the specified stream. The characters start
from the current position of the data stream to the first carriage
return / line feed character encountered, end of the file (EOF), or
until the number of read characters equals n-1. A null character
is appended to the end of the passed string.
Return value: Zero is returned when the end of the file (EOF) is reached.
scanf, fscanf, sscanf
Format:
int scanf (const char* format [, address,…]);
int fscanf (FILE* stream, const char* format [,
address,…]);
int sscanf (char* s, const char* format [,
address,…]);
Description:
The family of scanf() functions checks the input for a format as described
below. This format may contain conversion specifications. The results of
such conversions, if any, are stored at the locations pointed to by the pointer
arguments that adhere to the format.
Each pointer argument must have an appropriate type for the return value by
the associated conversion specification. If the number of conversion
specifications in format exceeds the number of pointer arguments, the results
are undefined. If the number of pointer arguments exceeds the number of
conversion specifications, then the excess pointer arguments are evaluated
but otherwise ignored.
scanf: Reads characters from stdin to
.
fscanf: Reads characters from input to carriage return / line feed.
sscanf: The characters are read from the specified string s.
Return value: Number of assigned arguments. EOF will be returned when the end of the file
is reached.
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Format definition
The string format consists of a series of guidelines which describe how the sequence of input
characters is processed. If processing a directive fails, no further input is read and scanf()
returns.
1. Space / Carriage Return
The entry is read or, if no more characters are present, is read until it encounters a
character that is not a space (will not be read anyway). Execution of the function will
be terminated if a character is encountered that is not a space.
2. Normal character (other than space and %)
The next character is read. The execution of the function is terminated if it is not a
normal character, and the input character is not read.
Conversion Definitions
Symbol
Expected format
Conversion
%d
String in binary integer format (decimal)
int
%i
String in binary integer format (decimal, octal or hexadecimal)
int
%O
String in binary integer format (octal)
int
%u
String with a whole decimal number without sign.
unsigned int
%x
String with a whole hexadecimal number
int
%f
String with a floating-point number
float
%e
String with a floating-point number
float
%G
String with a floating-point number
float
%c
String with a string (character number 1 or specified field width)
char
%s
String (at the end zero (¥0) is added)
%p
String of 4 hex characters (e.g., 89ab)
pointer
Format of the conversion statement
%[*] [fieldwidth] [I] Symbol
*:
(Assignment prevented) It is possible to read into the input field, but it is not
possible to assign the conversion result to an argument.
fieldwidth: The maximum field width is defined by an unsigned integer.
I:
Integer numbers are converted to long integer. Floating point numbers are
converted to double. Long floating point numbers are converted to long
double.
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putc, putchar, fputc
Format:
int putc (int c, FILE* stream);
int putchar (int c);
int fputc (int c, FILE* stream);
Description:
Outputs a single character.
putc:
A character is written to the specified stream.
putchar: A character is written to stdout.
fputc:
A character is written to the specified stream
Return value: the written character. If an error occurs while writing EOF is returned.
puts, fputs
Format:
int puts (const char* s);
int fputs (const char* s, int n, FILE* stream);
Description:
Characters are written from the string s.
puts:
Writes a string to stdout. The end of the string null character is
replaced by carriage return/line feed.
Fputs: Writes a string to the specified stream starting at the current
position of the output flow. The end of the string null character is
not written.
Return value: the last written character. If an error occurs while writing EOF is returned.
printf, fprintf, sprintf
Format:
int printf (const char* format [, arg,…]);
int fprintf (FILE* stream, const char* format [,
arg,…]);
int sprintf (char* s, const char* format [, arg,
…]);
Description:
The family of printf() functions converts the “argument” of the format
definition and outputs it to a stream, writes it to stdout, or returns the
result as a string. The format string is a character string of length greater than
0 and can be composed of normal characters, ESC sequences, and conversion
definitions. Normal characters and ESC sequences are output in order of
appearance. Conversion definitions, on the other hand, are carried out by
sequential extraction, conversion, and output of the arguments. If there are
more arguments than definitions, the additional arguments are ignored. If
there are too few arguments, the results are undefined.
printf: Write characters to stdout.
fprintf: Write characters to the specified stream from the current position.
sprintf: Write characters to the specified string s.
Return value: Number of characters output. EOF will be returned if an error occurs.
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Format definition
The string format consists of a series of guidelines which describe how the sequence of
output characters is generated.
Symbol
Expected format
Argument
%d
Display as signed decimal
int
%i
Display as signed decimal
int
%O
Display as unsigned octal
int
%u
Display as unsigned decimal
int
%x
Display as unsigned hexadecimal (abcdef)
int
%X
Display as unsigned hexadecimal (ABCDEF)
int
%f
Display decimal in the form [-] ddd.ddd, where ddd is a single-
digit decimal value or longer.
double
%e
Display decimal in the form [-] d.ddde ± dd, where d is a one-
digit decimal value, ddd is one or more digits.
double
%E
Display decimal in the form [-] d.dddE ± dd, where d is a one-
digit decimal value, ddd is one or more digits.
double
%g
Converts f or e in a shortened form to Double %G
double
%G
Converts f or E in a shortened form to Double %c
double
%c
Conversion to an unsigned character
int
%s
Characters of the string are output until zero (¥0, is not output)
or the specified number of characters is reached.
string (char*)
%p
Output as a pointer argument
pointer
Format of the conversion statement
%[flag] [fieldwidth] [.precision] [I] Symbol
flag
1.
: left-justified output
+
: sign is always output
#
: for a % conversion, a 0 is prefixed. For a %x and %X conversion, a 0x (or 0X)
is prefixed.
0
: fill result with leading zeros (for %d, %i, %O, %u, %x, %X)
(omitted) : right-justified output
fieldwidth
n
: specifies the number of digits to be output. Spaces are used if there are fewer
characters than spaces.
0n
: set field to length n. If the result of the conversion is shorter than n, the result
is padded with zeroes.
(omitted) : length is defined by the conversion result.
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.precision
n
: %d, %O, %u, %x, %f - defines the smallest number of digits to output
(default is 1).
%e, %E, %f - defines number of places after the decimal point (default is 6).
%g, %G - defines number of characters to output (default: all significant
characters).
I
: Defines the output as a long argument for %d, %i, %o, %u, %x, %X
fflush
Format:
int fflush (FILE* stream);
Description:
Writes the contents of the buffer to a file in the output stream. For an input
stream, the contents of the buffer memory are deleted. This feature does not
close the stream. The buffer is automatically flushed when it is full.
Return value: null. If an error occurs while writing, EOF is returned.
clearerr
Format:
void clearerr (FILE* stream);
Description: This function clears a data stream EOF error condition
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8.12.2. Character Functions
isalnum, isalpha, iscntrl, isdigit, isgraph, islower, isprint, ispunct, isspace,
isupper, isxdigit
Format:
int isalnum (int c);
int isalpha (int c);
int iscntrl (int c);
int isdigit (int c);
int isgraph (int c);
int islower (int c);
int isprint (int c);
int ispunct (int c);
int isspace (int c);
int isupper (int c);
int isxdigit (int c);
Description:
Characterization of a character
isalnum
: check for letters or digits
isalpha
: check for letters
iscntrl
: check for control characters
isdigit
: check for digits
isgraph
: check for any printable character except space
islower
: check for lowercase letters
isprint
: check for any printable characters, including space
ispunct
: check for any printable character that is not a space or an
alphanumeric character
isspace
: check for dial tone (spaces, tabs, line breaks and so on, 0x09 ~
0x0d, 0x20)
isupper
: check for capital letters
isxdigit : check for hexadecimal character (0-F, 0-f)
Return value: true (value not equal to zero) or false (zero)
tolower, toupper
Format:
int tolower (int c);
int toupper (int c);
Description:
tolower : converts the character to lowercase
toupper : converts the character to capital letters
Return value: the converted character
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8.12.3. String Functions
strcat
Format:
char* strcat (char* s1, const char* s2);
Description:
Append string s2 to string s1.
Return value: Pointer to string s1
strchr
Format:
char* strchr (const char* s, int c);
Description:
Searches a string for the first occurrence of a particular character.
Return value: returns a pointer to the first occurrence of the character c in the string s or
null if the string does not contain this character.
strcmp
Format:
int strcmp (const char* s1, const char* s2);
Description:
Compares two strings. Starting with the first character, the two strings are
compared character-by-character until two corresponding characters are
unequal or the end of the strings are reached.
Return value: returns a value
<0
if s1 is less than s2
0
if s1 is equal to s2
0> if s1 is greater than s2
strcpy
Format:
char* strcpy (char* s1, const char* s2);
Description:
Copies one string to another. strcpy copies the contents of string s2 to
string s1. The final null character of s2 is copied as the last character.
Return value: Pointer to string s1
strlen
Format:
int strlen (const char* string);
Description:
Determines the length of a string
Return value: Returns the number of characters in the string. The final null character is
not counted.
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8.12.4. Memory Functions
calloc
Format:
void* calloc (unsigned n, unsigned size);
Description:
Allocates memory to a group of n elements, where each element is size
size.
Return value: Returns a pointer to the reserved memory area. If memory allocation fails
(for example, if the RAM size is exceeded), NULL is returned.
malloc
Format:
void* malloc (unsigned size);
Description:
Allocates memory of the size size.
Return value: Returns a pointer to the reserved memory area. If memory allocation fails
(for example, if the RAM size is exceeded), NULL is returned.
free
Format:
void* free (void* ptr);
Description:
Releases allocated memory reserved by calloc or malloc. The argument
ptr must be a pointer to a memory area previously allocated by calloc or
malloc.
Return value: none
8.12.5. Mathematical Functions
abs
Format:
int abs (int x);
Description:
The absolute value of integer x
Return value: absolute number (0-32767).
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asin, acos, atan
Format:
double asin (double x);
double acos (double x);
double atan (double x);
Description:
These functions return a value equal to their respective inverse trigonometric
function. It can be specified in DEG, RAD or GRAD. The calculation range
for asin and acos is between -1 and 1
Return value: the respective value of the result, NULL in case of an error.
Function
Value Range
DEG
RAD
GRAD
asin
-90° to 90°
-π/2 to π/2
-100 to 100
acos
0° to 180°
0 to π
0 to 200
atan
-90° to 90°
-π/2 to π/2
-100 to 200
asinh, acosh, atanh
Format:
double asinh (double x);
double acosh (double x);
double atanh (double x);
Description:
These functions return a value equal to their respective inverse hyperbolic
function.
Return value: the respective value of the result.
exp
Format:
double exp (double x);
Description:
Calculates ex
Return value: the expected value of the result
log, log10
Format:
double log (double x);
double log10 (double x);
Description: log(x) calculates the natural logarithm of x.
log10(x) calculates the common logarithm of x.
Return value: the result.
pow
Format:
double pow (double x, double y);
Description:
Raise x to the power of y.
Return value: the result.
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sin, cos, tan
Format:
double sin (double x);
double cos (double x);
double tan (double x);
Description:
These functions return a value equal to their respective trigonometric
function. The indication can be made in DEG, RAD or GRAD.
Return value: the respective value for the result.
sinh, cosh, tanh
Format:
double sinh (double x);
double cosh (double x);
double tanh (double x);
Description:
These functions return a value equal to their respective hyperbolic function.
Return value: the respective value for the result.
sqrt
Format:
double sqrt (double x);
Description:
Calculates the square root of x
Return value: the result.
8.13. Hardware Interface Functions
This section describes the hardware-specific I/O functions.
8.13.1. Mini I/O Functions
miniget
Format:
int miniget (void);
Description:
Reads a byte from the mini I/O port
Bit 2: Xin, Bit 1: Din, Bit: Ack
Return value: the byte read
miniput
Format:
void miniput (char byte);
Description:
Writes a byte to the mini I/O port
Bit 2: Busy, Bit 1: Dout, Bit0: Xout
Return value: None
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8.13.2. 8-bit PIO Control via the 11-pin Interface
fclose
Format:
int fclose (FILE* stream);
Description:
close the stream
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error EOF will be returned.
fopen
Format:
FILE* fopen (char* path, char* type);
Description:
Opens a stream to the device specified by path with the mode specified by
type. For 8-bit PIO, path is “pio” and the mode can be set as follows:
r+ : input
w+ : output
a+ : input and output.
Return value: with normal execution, the pointer to the FILE structure is returned. In case
of error, NULL is returned.
pioget
Format:
int pioget (void);
Description:
reads in a byte from the PIO port.
Return value: the byte read.
pioput
Format:
void pioput (char byte);
Description:
writes a byte to the PIO port.
Return value: none
pioset
Format:
void pioset (char byte);
Description:
set the input and output mode of the PIO port. 1 sets the input mode and 0
sets the output mode
Return value: none
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8.13.3. SIO (RS-232C) Control via the 11-pin Interface
fclose
Format:
int fclose (FILE* stream);
Description:
Close the stream. In the output mode, the EOF character is written, which
was determined by the entry in TEXT mode under SIO with the end-of-file
parameter.
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, EOF will be returned
fopen
Format:
FILE* fopen (char* path, char* type);
Description:
Opens a stream to the device specified by path with the mode specified under
type. For the serial interface, path is stdaux for half-duplex communication
and stdaux1 for full-duplex communication. The mode can be specified as
follows:
r+ : input
w+ : output
a+ : input and output.
Return value: with normal execution, the pointer to the FILE structure is returned. In case
of error, NULL is returned.
8.13.4. Buffer / Communications Controller
feof
Format:
int feof (FILE* stream);
Description:
Checks if the stream has reached the end of the file (EOF).
Return value: When the end of the file is reached, the value of -1 is returned. If the end of
the file has not yet been reached, NULL is returned.
8.13.5. I/O port functions
inport
Format:
unsigned char inport(unsigned charport);
Description:
Reads a byte from the specified I/O port address (0x20-0x3F)
Return value: the read byte
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outport
Format:
void outport(unsigned charport, unsigned char
byte);
Description:
Writes a byte to the specified I/O port address (0x20-0x3F)
Return value: none
8.13.6. Memory Functions / Program Call
call
Format:
unsigned call(unsigned adr, void* arg_HL);
Description:
Calls a machine language program starting from the address adr. The value
of the arg_HL argument is passed to the HL register.
Return value: Contents of the HL register
peek
Format:
unsigned char peek(unsigned adr);
Description:
Reads a byte from the address adr.
Return value: Content of memory address adr
poke
Format:
void poke(unsigned adr, unsigned char byte);
Description:
Writes a byte to the address adr.
Return value: none
8.13.7. Datafile Functions
fclose
Format:
int fclose(FILE* stream);
Description:
Close the file stream. If file mode “w” or “a” was specified, a 0x1A is
written on closing the file.
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, EOF will be returned
feof
Format:
int feof(FILE* stream);
Description:
Checks if the stream has reached the end of the file (EOF).
Return value: When the end of the file is reached, a value of 1 is returned. If the end of the
file has not yet been reached, a 0 is returned.
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flof
Format:
unsigned long flof(FILE* stream);
Description:
Determines the number of remaining unused bytes in the file.
Return value: the number of remaining unused bytes.
fopen
Format:
FILE* fopen(char* path, char* type);
Description:
Opens a stream to the file specified by path with the mode specified under
type. The path definition for a data file corresponding to the file name is
defined in TEXT mode. The mode is specified as follows:
r
: input
w : output
a
: input and output.
Return value: with normal execution, the pointer to the FILE structure is returned. In case
of error, NULL is returned.
8.13.8. Graphic Functions
The graphic functions described here correspond to the BASIC functions. For more detailed
information, please use the descriptions of the corresponding BASIC commands.
circle
Format:
int circle (int x, int y, int r, double s-angle,
double e-angle, double ratio, int reverse,
unsigned short fill);
Description:
draws a circle
x, y
: coordinate of the center
r
: radius
s-angle : start angle
e-angle : end angle
ratio
: ratio for the ellipse
reverse : 0-set point
: 1-delete point
: 2-invert point
fill
: fill pattern (See the description of the BASIC command)
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
gcursor
Format:
int gcursor (int x, int y);
Description:
Positions the graphic cursor at point x, y.
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
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gprint
Format:
void gprint (char* image);
Description:
Draws graphic pattern on the display.
Return value: none
line
Format:
int line (int x, int y, int x2, int y2, int
reverse, unsigned short mask, int rectangle);
Description:
Draws a line or a rectangle.
x,y
: coordinates of first point (corner)
x2,y2
: coordinates of second point (opposite corner)
reverse
: 0-Set point
: 1-Delete point
: 2-Invert point
mask
: Line style (See the description of the Basic command):
rectangle : 0-draws a line
: 1-draws a rectangle
: 2-draws a filled rectangle
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
paint
Format:
int paint (int x, int y, unsigned short kind);
Description:
Fills the area with the pattern starting at the coordinate x,y.
kind: fill pattern (See the description of the BASIC command)
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
point
Format:
int point (int x, int y);
Description:
Provides information about the state of the display point at x,y.
Return value: If the point is dark, i.e. set, then 1 is returned. If the item is not set, the value
0 is returned. If the point is outside the screen, -1 is returned.
preset
Format:
int preset (int x, int y);
Description:
Clears the display point.
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
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pset
Format:
int pset (int x, int y, int reverse);
Description:
Sets the display point.
reverse: 0 sets the point
1 inverts the point
Return value: if successful, NULL is returned. In case of an error, -1 is returned
8.14. Other Functions
abort, exit
Format:
void abort (void);
void exit (int status);
Description:
Exits / terminates the program.
abort : aborts the program. A B O R T will be displayed on screen.
exit : normal program termination with return code
Return value: none
angle
Format:
void angle (unsigned n);
Description:
Sets the mode for the trigonometric functions.
n = 0 : DEG
n = 1 : RAD
n = 2 : GRAD
Return value: none
breakpt
Format:
void breakpt (void);
Description:
Interrupts program execution and enters BREAK mode.
Return value: none
clrscr
Format:
void clrscr (void);
Description:
Clears the screen
Return value: none
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getch
Format:
int getch (void);
Description:
Waits for a character from the keyboard. Does not require
.
Return value: returns the read character
gotoxy
Format:
void gotoxy (unsigned x, unsigned y);
Description:
Sets the text cursor to the specified coordinate on the screen. (0,0) is the
upper left corner.
Return value: none
kbhit
Format:
int kbhit (void);
Description:
Reads a character from the keyboard without waiting.
Return value: returns the read key. If no key is pressed, 0 is returned.
8.15. Error Messages
8.15.1. Compiler Error Messages
Error message
Description
zero dimension
An array size of NULL in a context where this is illegal.
array of function is illegal
Array of function is not allowed
cannot find include file
Include file cannot be found
case in not switch
case statement is not inside a switch statement
constant expected
- Element count of the array is not an integer
- Term of a case label is not a constant expression
default not in switch
Default statement is not within a switch statement
define buffer full
Too many #define statements
different s / u
Different struct/union
division by 0
Division by 0
duplicate #define <name>
Macro double defined
duplicate case
More than one case statement in the switch statement.
duplicate default
More than one default statement in the switch statement.
duplicate label: <name>
Label <name> was defined more than once.
empty character constant
Constant has no content
float overflow
Float point constant outside of range
float underflow
Float point constant outside of range
function illegally s / u
Function in struct/union area not allowed
function returns illegal type
Type of return value is not allowed in this function
if nest too deep
Too many nested #if/#ifdef statements
if nesting error
#if/#ifdef/#endif syntax error
if-less elif
Matching #if/#ifdef to #elif not found
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Error message
Description
if-less else
Matching #if/#ifdef to #else not found
if-less endif
Matching #if / #ifdef to #endif not found
illegal #line
Wrong #define syntax
illegal break
Break statement within do, for, while, or switch loop not
allowed
illegal character
Illegal character in source code
illegal class
Defined class cannot be used
illegal continue
Continue statement within do, for, or while loop not
allowed
illegal digit in octal
Illegal digit in an octal number (8 or 9).
illegal function
Call function that does not match the type
illegal if
Incorrect expression in #if/#ifdef
illegal include
Incorrect #include statement syntax
illegal indirection
Invalid operand for unary operator *
illegal initialization
The right side of the initialization is not a constant
expression
illegal main
Argument declared in the function main()
illegal operand of
<operator>
Operand of <operator> is wrong type
illegal operand of U+
Operand of unary + operator is wrong type
illegal operand of U-
Operand of unary - operator is wrong type
illegal operand of ARG
Function arguments are wrong type
illegal operand of RET
Expression of return statement is wrong type
illegal s / u
struct / union used incorrectly.
illegal size
Size of the structure / union is too large
illegal switch expression
Invalid expression in switch command
illegal type
Invalid type cast has occurred
illegal void
Use of type void is incorrect
include nest too deep
#include nesting is too deep
macro recursion
Macro is recursive
memory full
Memory is full
missing argument: <name>
No argument <name> in the function call
missing declarator
No declaration
missing function: <name>
Function <name> was not declared
missing label
-No label in goto statement
-Undefined label in goto statement
missing main
Main () not defined
missing member
-undefined members in struct / union
-unused members in struct/union.
missing member in s / u
Missing member in struct/union.
missing name in prototype
No argument name in prototype definition
missing type
Type not defined.
missing type in prototype
Syntax error in prototype
newline in character
constant
Line break in character constant.
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Error message
Description
newline in string constant
Line break in string constant
prototype mismatch
Expression of the function call does not match the prototype
redeclaration: <name>
<name> was already defined
reserved: <name>
<name> is reserved
syntax error
Program violated the syntax rules
token buffer full
Macro expansion is too complex
too complicated declarator
Definition is too complex
too complicated declaration
Definition is too complex
too complicated initialize
Initialization is too complex
too deep statement
Nesting too deep
too long initializer
Initialization string constant too long
too long macro
Macro text too long
too many #defines
Number of #defines greater than limit.
too many case
Number of case statements greater than limit.
too many characters in
character constant
Number of characters in the constant greater than limit.
too many characters in
string constant
Number of characters in the string constant greater than
limit.
too many initializers
Declared too many initialization expressions
too many label
Number of goto labels greater than limit
too many prototypes
Number of prototype definitions greater than limit
unacceptable operand of &
Operand of & operator invalid
unexpected EOF
The source program ends in the middle of the syntax
unknown size
The size is indefinite.
void function
Returns a value in the return statement even though it is a
void function
zero or negative subscript
Negative or zero number of elements in array
8.15.2. Run-Time Error Messages
Error message
Description
NO MEMORY
Memory overflow
BAD POINTER
Pointer points outside the permitted range
DIVISION BY 0
Division by 0
UNKNOWN ERROR
Incorrect pointers destroyed the areas of the C program
BAD FUNCTION
Incorrect pointer value in function call.
BAD STREAM
Input/output data stream incorrect
ARITHMETIC ERROR
Calculation error (i.e. floating-point interruptions)
FRAME ERROR
Functional frame destroyed
I / O ERROR OPEN
Serial interface opened too often
I / O ERROR
Mini I/O unopened
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9. CASL
9.1. The CASL assembler
The CASL assembler system was developed to teach assembly language and to understand
the internal processes of a computer. The system consists of two parts, the CASL assembler
and the COMET virtual machine. When developing the COMET system, great care was
taken to ensure that all states of the system could be monitored and tracked. Unfortunately,
this system has not established itself beyond the borders of Japan and the Philippines. In
order to pass the exam for the Japanese Information Technology Standards Examination
(JITSE) in Japan, a test in CASL / COMET had to be taken (in 2013, probably not more!?!).
The extension to CASL II and COMET II from 2001 does not support this computer.
This manual explains the CASL II / COMET II specification, which focuses on handling the
Sharp PC-G850
9.2. CASL mode Functions
The CASL mode consists of three functions:
assembler:
Use the TEXT editor to write and save CASL program. The program can
then be assembled and executed in CASL mode.
If the CE-126P printer is connected, the output can be redirected to the
printer.
monitor:
Used to monitor the program and the contents of the registers and change
them. Likewise, they can change the data ranges defined with the DS
command.
simulated
execution:
The program is executed in a simulated environment. The program can be
executed normally or in trace mode. The execution of the program can be
stopped at defined breakpoints.
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9.3. CASL Programming Procedure
Flowchart of the procedure for CASL programming.
Start programming
Create program with the TEXT editor.
Produce object code with the CASL assembler.
Monitor program memory and registers.
Run program in Simulator
OK?
Repeat as necessary
End
No
Yes
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GR0:#XXXX XXXX
GR1:#XXXX XXXX
GR2:#XXXX XXXX
GR3:#XXXX XXXX
BR4:#XXXX XXXX
PC :#XXXX XXXX
Register
Object
<<OBJECT>>
ADDRESS=#XXXX
Assemble
Monitor
Go
Trace
Normal
Memory
Monitor/Editor
Execution
in Trace
FR :#XXXX X
BP :#XXXX XXXX
BC :#XXXX XXXX
<<SIMULATION>>
START ADDRESS=#XXXX
Program
Execution
Error?
Note:
Edit the source program with the TEXT editor
(Enter TEXT then press ..E..)
.BREAK.
.BREAK.
.CLS.
..A..
..M..
..G..
.SHIFT. +
.ASMBL.
then press
..C..
..R..
..O..
#XXXX
#XXXX
..T..
..N..
.BREAK.
for
every
stop
.BREAK.
EXIT
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9.4. Entering / Editing the Source Program
The CASL source program is created and modified in TEXT mode using the editor.
.TEXT. ..E..
TEXT EDITOR
<
Detailed information on how to use TEXT mode can be found in chapter "TEXT mode".
9.4.1. Line Format
Structure of the source program:
32776 BGN
ADD 0, DAT, 1 ;SAMPLE
Line number
Label
Command
Operands
Comment
Individual operands are separated by either spaces or tabs.
Line number : A number between 1 and 65279. If a number outside this range is specified,
the message <LINE NO. ERROR> is displayed.
Label
: The label consists of up to 6 alphanumeric characters. All subsequent
characters are ignored. The label must start with a letter
Command
: The command to be executed.
Operands
: GR register, address operands or XR. Each operand must be separated by a
comma. XR can be omitted.
Comment
: Comments must begin with a semicolon (;) and are used to insert notes in the
program.
Including comments, a line may have a maximum length of 254 characters.
Example program:
This program generates the output “CARDS”
10L1 START L2
20L2 OUT DSP, N
30 EXIT
40N DC 9
50DSP DC #E8
60 DC #39
70 DC ‘CARDS’
80 DC #EA
90 DC #EB
100 END
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10L1 .TAB. START .TAB. L2
20L2 .TAB. OUT .TAB. DSP, N
30 .TAB. EXIT
40N .TAB. DC .TAB. 9
50DSP .TAB. DC .TAB. #E8
60 .TAB. DC .TAB. #39
70 .TAB. DC .TAB. ‘CARDS’
80 .TAB. DC .TAB. #EA
90 .TAB. DC .TAB. #EB
100 .TAB. END
L2 is start of the program
Output N characters with DSP
Return from program execution
“”
“”
“CARDS”
“”
“”
Program end
9.5. The CASL Assembler
After the source code has been created in the text editor, all further steps are carried out in
CASL mode.
.SHIFT. + .ASMBL. after that, press ..C.. to enter
CASL mode.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
Press ..A.. to assemble source code.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
complete!
”Assembling” will show in the bottom line of the screen. If the assembler has executed
successfully, the message “complete!” appears. If an error occurs during assembly, the
process is terminated and an error message is displayed.
The finished object program is stored starting from address 1000.
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9.5.1. CASL Assembler Log
During the assembly run, a log is generated in the following format:
ADD : OBJECT : LINE NO.
: 10
1000:7000 100B: 20
1002:7000 100A: 20
1004:8000 0002: 20
1006:1244 0002: 20
1008:6400 0004: 30
100A:0009 : 40
100B:00E8 : 50
100C:00E9 : 60
100D:0043 : 70
100E:0041 : 70
100F:0052 : 70
1010:0044 : 70
1011:0053 : 70
1012:00EA : 80
1013:00EB : 90
: 100
—1— –——2——– –——3——–
1) Address (16 bit)
LABEL :ADDRESS—
2) Object (16 bit)
L1 1000
3) Line number of source program
L2 1000
4
4) Label
N 100A
DSP 100B —
Note: The output of the protocol can also be redirected to a connected printer CE-126P. (for
example, by .SHIFT. + .PNP.)
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9.5.2. CASL Assembler Error Messages
If the assembler detects errors during execution, these error messages are displayed. Pressing
.CLS. clears the error message on the screen. Afterwards you can correct the program with
the text editor.
Type
Error Message
Description
Opcode error
OP CODE ERROR (line number) Incorrect command code in
specified line.
OP CODE ERROR (0)
No source program
Operand error OPERAND ERROR (line number) Incorrect operand at the specified
line number.
Label error
LABEL ERROR (line number)
Incorrect label at the specified
line number
Memory error MEMORY ERROR (0)
- insufficient memory.
- insufficient stack space.
General error OTHER ERROR
No START or END command
was found or the source program
has another syntax error
9.6. Simulation
Press ..G.. in the CASL menu to execute the program.
..G..
<< SIMULATION >>
START ADDRESS=#1000
The start address is displayed. This can be changed. If nothing else is entered and
is
pressed, the program will use address #1000.
You can enter the desired address in either decimal or hexadecimal form (preceded by a #
sign).
The following display then appears:
<< SIMULATION >>
START ADDRESS=#1000
Normal Trace
Press ..N.. or ..T...
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112
9.6.1. Normal Execution
Press ..N.. to start the program.
..N..
CARDS
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
_
Running programs can be aborted at any time with the .BREAK. key, e.g. To check or change
registers or memory contents. The program can then be continued by pressing ..G.. in the
CASL menu (Go).
9.6.2. Trace Mode
Press the ..T.. key. The registers (GR0-GR4), the program counter (PC), the flag register (FR)
and the current command are displayed. Each time the
button is pressed, the next
command is executed.
..T..
1000: GR0:0000 GR4:1B0B
GR1:0000 PC :1002
GR2:0000 FR :0000
GR3:0000 <PUSH>
1002: GR0:0000 GR4:1B0A
GR1:0000 PC :1004
GR2:0000 FR :0000
GR3:0000 <PUSH>_
If the output is redirected by .SHIFT. + .PNP., the trace output is directed to the printer as
follows:
ADD :GR0 GR1 GR2 GR3
1000:0000 0000 0000 0000
1002:0000 0000 0000 0000
1004:0000 0000 0000 0000
CARDS
0002:0000 0000 0000 0000
1006:0000 0000 0000 0000
1008:0000 0000 0000 0000
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9.6.3. Trace Error Messages
Error Message
Description
OBJECT ERROR
No object program found
* MEM *
* ERR *
JMP addresses an area outside the address space.
The available memory has been exceeded
* OPR *
* ERR *
The output of OUT has more than 97 characters
9.7. Monitor
The monitor function is used to check the contents of the registers of the COMET virtual
machine. Likewise, you can change the object program or registers. You can also work with
breakpoints. The monitor function can be accessed by pressing ..M.. in the main CASL menu.
..M..
<< MONITOR >>
REGISTER OBJECT
Now you can select:
R : View and change the registers
O : View and change the object program and memory
9.7.1. Display Register Contents
Press ..R.. to display the register contents.
..R..
GR0 #0000 0
GR1:#0000 0
GR2:#0000 0
GR3:#0000 0
GR4:#1BOB 6923
PC :#1000 4096
Use the cursor keys (
) or
to scroll the display. The current register is indicated by
a missing colon.
⋮
GR3:#0000 0
GR4:#1BOB 6923
PC :#1000 4096
FR :#0000 0
BP :#FFFF 65535
BC #0000 0
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114
register
name
description
GR0-GR4
General register
Universal register. GR4 is used as a stack pointer
PC
Program counter
Points to the next command to be executed
FR
Flag register
Result of executing a command (positive, zero, negative)
BP
Break pointer
Used to control the execution of the simulation.
BC
Break counter
9.7.2. Set Registers
The contents of the selected register (where the colon is off) can be set with values as
follows:
Decimal
: Enter a decimal number from -32768-65535
Example: 123
Output: #007B 123
Hexadecimal : Enter a hexadecimal number from 0-FFFF
Example: #007B
Output: #007B 123
Label
: Label enclosed in double quotes
Example: "L1"
Output: #100A 4106 (L1 points to # 100A)
Character
: Characters enclosed in quotes
Example: 'A'
Output: #0041 65
Pressing .CLS. aborts the entry without changing the original value.
Note: The contents of register FR use only 2 bits (values 0,1 and 2) all other bits
are ignored.
Contents of the registers after reset / start of the assembler:
GR0-GR3 : 0
GR4
: upper address + 1 of the object area
PC
: Start address of the program (address of the label of the start instruction)
FR
: 0
BP
: FFFF (Hex)/65535 (decimal), No breakpoint set
BC
: 0
Note: GR4 can normally be used freely. The address of the object area can be
changed in the monitor or in the program.
9.7.3. Display Object Code
Press .O. in the CASL menu to display object code.
..O..
<< OBJECT >>
ADDRESS=#1000
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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Confirm the start address with
or change this address beforehand.
⋮
1000:7000 PUSH #100B
1001:100B
1002:7000 PUSH #100A
1003:100A
1004:0000 CALL #0002
1005:0002
1006 1244 LEA 4, #0002, 4
Note: If no program was previously loaded into the CASL assembler, the error
<OBJECT ERROR> is displayed.
Use the cursor keys (
) or
to scroll the display. The current address is indicated by
a missing colon.
The content of the selected address (where the colon is off) can be set with values as follows:
Decimal
: Enter a decimal number from -32768-65535
Example: 123
Output: #007B 123
Hexadecimal : Enter a hexadecimal number from 0-FFFF
Example: #007B
Output: #007B 123
Label
: Label enclosed in double quotes
Example: "L1"
Output: #100A 4106 (L1 points to # 100A)
Character
: Characters enclosed in quotes
Example: 'A'
Output: #0041 65
Pressing .CLS. aborts the entry without changing the original value.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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9.8. Sample CASL Program
Here is an example program that adds 5 numbers:
This program adds the numbers in line 130-170 to DAT (line 120).
10EXAM START
20BGN
LEA
GR0, 0
Write 0 to register 0
30
LEA
GR1, 0
Write 0 to register 1
40
JMP
AGN1
unconditional jump to AGN1
50AGN
ADD
GR0, DAT, GR1 Add the contents of DAT to register 0 (with
shift GR1)
60
LEA
GR1,1, GR1
Increase value of register 1 by 1
70AGN1 CPA
GR1, N0
Compares the numbers in GR1 and N
80
JMI
AGN
On negative result (i.e. N > GR1), jump to AGN
90
ST
GR0, TTL
Stores the number in register 0 after TTL
100
EXIT
End of program / return jump
110N
DC
5
120TTL DS
1
Define storage space
130DAT DC
#000C
140
DC
#07F3
150
DC
#0231
160
DC
#0009
170
DC
#000F
180
END
End of program
9.8.1. Operation Example:
Input
Output
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..M..
<< MONITOR >>
Register Object
..O..
<< OBJECT >>
ADDRESS=#1000
⋮
1000 1200 LEA 0, #0000
1001:0000
1002:1212 LEA 1, #0000
1003:0000
1004:6400 JMP #100A
1006:2001 ADD 0, #1014, 1
1007:1014
1008:1211 LEA 1, #0001, 1
1009:0001
100A:4010 CPA 1, #1012
100B:1012
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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⋮
100C:6100 JMI #!006
100D:1006
100E:1100 ST 0, #1013
100F:1013
1010:6400 JMP #0004
1011:0004
1012:0005 *
1013:0000
1014:000C *
1015:07f3
1016:0231 *****
1017:0009
1018:000F *
1019:0000
.ON.
<< MONITOR >>
Register Object
Input
Output
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..M..
<< MONITOR >>
Register Object
..R..
⋮
GR0:#0000 0
GR1:#0000 0
GR2:#0000 0
GR3:#0000 0
GR4:#1AA5 6821
PC :#1000 4096
⋮
BP #FFFF 65535
#100C
BP #FFFF #100C
BP #100C 4108
BC #0000 0
2
BC #0002 2
.BREAK. .BREAK.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..G..
<< SIMULATION >>
START ADDRESS-#1000
Normal Trace
..N..
100C: GR0:000C GR4:1AA5
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* * GR1:0001 PC :100C
*STP* GR2:0000 FR :0002
* * GR3:0000 <JMI>
100C: GR0:07FF GR4:1AA5
* * GR1:0002 PC :100C
*STP* GR2:0000 FR :0002
* * GR3:0000 <JMI>
.BREAK. .BREAK.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..M.. ..R..
⋮
GR0:#07FF 2047
GR1:#0002 2
GR2:#0000 0
GR3:#0000 0
GR4:#1AA5 6821
PC :#100C 4108
⋮
BC #0000 0
4
BC #0004 4
.BREAK. .BREAK.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..G..
<< SIMULATION >>
START ADDRESS-#100C
Normal Trace
..N..
100C: GR0:0A48 GR4:1AA5
* * GR1:0005 PC :100C
*STP* GR2:0000 FR :0001
* * GR3:0000 <JMI>
.BREAK. .BREAK.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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9.8.2. Trace Example
Input
Output
Opcode
.BREAK. .BREAK.
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
..G..
<< SIMULATION >>
START ADDRESS-#100C
Normal Trace
..T..
1000:GR0:0000 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :1002
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <LEA>
LEA GR0, 0
1002:GR0:0000 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :1004
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <LEA>
LEA GR1, 0
1004:GR0:0000 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :100A
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <JMP>
JMP AGN1
100A:GR0:0000 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :100C
GR2:0000 FR :0002
GR3:0000 <CPA>
CPA GR1, N
100C:GR0:0000 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :1006
GR2:0000 FR :0002
GR3:0000 <JMI>
JMI AGN
1006:GR0:000C GR4:1AA5
GR1:0000 PC :1008
GR2:0000 FR :0000
GR3:0000 <ADD>
ADD GR0, DAT, GR1
1008:GR0:000C GR4:1AA5
GR1:0001 PC :100A
GR2:0000 FR :0000
GR3:0000 <LEA>
LEA GR1, 1, GR1
⋮
⋮
⋮
⋮
100A:GR0:000C GR4:1AA5
GR1:0001 PC :100C
GR2:0000 FR :0002
GR3:0000 <CPA>
⋮
1004:GR0:0A48 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0005 PC :100C
GR2:0000 FR :0001
CPA GR1, N
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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GR3:0000 <CPA>
100C:GR0:0A48 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0005 PC :100E
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <JMI>
JMI AGN
100E:GR0:0A48 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0005 PC :1010
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <ST>
ST GR0, TTL
1010:GR0:0A48 GR4:1AA5
GR1:0005 PC :1004
GR2:0000 FR :0001
GR3:0000 <JMP>
EXIT
*** CASL ***
Assemble Monitor Go
9.9. COMET Specification
Based on the COMET / CASL specification, the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and
Industry in 2001, drafted the following specification of COMET II and CASL II:
1.
START
Defines the start of a program. By default this is the address #1000.
2.
DC
Defines a memory area with a decimal value of -32768-65535 (hex # 0000- # FFFF)
or a string.
3.
IN (CALL # 0000)
Entering characters from the screen: The input request is a question mark (‘?’). The
entry is completed by ENTER. The first operand is the address where the input
should be written. The number of read characters is written to the address of the
second operand. By pressing the
key, the input is ignored and the number 65636
(#FFFF) is passed.
4.
OUT (CALL #0002)
Output a string: This command corresponds to the Basic command PRINT. The first
operand is the address where the characters are to be output. The second operand
specifies the address in which the number of characters to be output is stored.
5.
WRITE CALL (#0006)
Outputs the contents of the registers on the screen. Press
to continue the program.
6.
END
Defines the end of the program.
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9.10. COMET Architecture
Technical information of the COMET architecture is listed below for a better understanding
of the CASL assembler.
Word length: 16 bits? (Each memory address has a length of 16 bits, as opposed to the
length of 8 bits of a normal computer)
Architecture: Von Neumann
Numbers:
16-bit binary numbers. Negative numbers are represented by the two's
complement.
Register:
GR0-GR4 (16bit): General Register. GR1-GR4 are also used as index
registers. However, register GR4 is mainly used as the stack pointer (SP). The
stack starts at the top free address of the comet machine and grows down with
each new entry.
PC (16bit): Program Counter. This register contains the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
FR (2bit): Flag Register. This register contains the result of comparison
operations 00 = larger (positive), 01 = equal (NULL), 10 = smaller (negative)
Stack:
The stack starts at the top free address of the Comet Machine and grows down
with each new entry. Register GR4 points to the most recently stored value. If
no value is stored, GR4 points to the last address + 1. If we enter a value with
PUSH, the address in GR4 decreases by 1. POP, on the other hand, increases
the address again by 1.
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9.11. Command Summary
Commands have a length of 2 16-bit words
Word 1
Word 2
OP
GR
XR
adr
Syntax
Description
Command
Operand
0 0
1 0
LD
GR, adr, XR load
1 1
ST
GR, adr, XR store
1 2
LEA
GR, adr, XR load effective address
2 0
ADD
GR, adr, XR add arithmetic
2 1
SUB
GR, adr, XR subtract arithmetic
3 0
AND
GR, adr, XR and
3 1
OR
GR, adr, XR or
3 2
EOR
GR, adr, XR exclusive or
4 0
CPA
GR, adr, XR compare arithmetic
4 1
CPL
GR, adr, XR compare logical
5 0
SLA
GR, adr, XR shift left arithmetic
5 1
SRA
GR, adr, XR shift right arithmetic
5 2
SLL
GR, adr, XR shift left logical
5 3
SRL
GR, adr, XR shift right logical
6 0
0
JPZ
adr, XR
jump on plus or zero
6 1
0
JMI
adr, XR
jump on minus
6 2
0
JNZ
adr, XR
jump on non-zero
6 3
0
JZE
adr, XR
jump on zero
6 4
0
JMP
adr, XR
unconditional jump
7 0
0
PUSH
adr, XR
push effective address
7 1
0
0000 POP
GR
pop up
8 0
0
CALL
adr, XR
call subroutine
8 1
0
0
0000 RET
return from subroutine
9
⋮
F
not used
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9.11.1. Registers and Abbreviations
There are 23 CASL commands defined for this computer. This section describes the registers
and defines the abbreviations used in the command descriptions:
GR
: GR0-4, the general purpose registers
XR
: XR0-4, the optional index registers. (There are no special XR registers,
these correspond to the GR registers).
SP
: The stack pointer. This is represented by register GR4.
adr
: A 16-bit number that corresponds to a label or number to be processed.
The number ranges from -32758 – 65535 decimal or #0000 – #FFFF
hexadecimal.
Valid address : An address adr which returns the address value and index XR.
[]
: Optional parameter
9.11.2. Commands
LD
Format:
LD GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The contents of address adr is written to the specified register GR0-GR4.
ST
Format:
ST GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The contents of register adr is written to the specified memory address.
LEA
Format:
LEA GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The value of adr is written to the register.
Example:
LEA GR1, 100
Load the value 100 to register GR1
LEA GR1, 10, GR1
Increase value in register GR1 by 10
LEA GR1, 0, GR2
Copy contents of GR1 to GR1
ADD
Format:
ADD GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The register GR is added to the value in address adr.
SUB
Format:
SUB GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The register GR is subtracted by the value in address adr.
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AND, OR, EOR
Format:
AND GR, adr [, XR]
OR GR, adr [, XR]
EOR GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The content in address adr are bitwise (16 bit) compared using logical AND,
OR, or XOR with the contents of GR.
CPA
Format:
CPA GR, adr [, XR]
Description: The content at address adr is compared to the contents of register GR. CPA
compares arithmetically and interprets the values as numbers (-32768 –
32767). CPL compares logically and interprets the content bitwise
(GR) > value
FR = 00 (0)
(GR) = value
FR = 01 (1)
(GR) < value
FR = 10 (2)
JPZ, JMI, JNZ, JZE
Format:
JPZ adr [, XR]
JMI adr [, XR]
JNZ adr [, XR]
JZE adr [, XR]
Description: Branches the program to the specified address when the condition is met.
JPZ : jump to address if comparison is positive or zero (FR = 00 or 01)
JMI : Jump to address if comparison is negative (FR = 10 [2])
JNZ : jump to address if comparison not zero (FR = 00 or 10)
JZE : jump to address if comparison is zero (FR = 01 [1])
JMP
Format:
JMP adr [, XR]
Description: Branches the program to the specified address adr.
SLA, SRA
Format:
SLA GR, adr [, XR]
SRA GR, adr [, XR]
Description: Arithmetic bitwise shift. The content of the register is shifted bitwise to the
left or right by the number of bits indicated by adr (plus the optional content
of XR), The sign (bit 15) always remains. In the case of negative numbers, a 1
instead of a 0 is inserted during the right shift. The FR register is set according
to the result.
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SSL, SLR
Format:
SLL GR, adr [, XR]
SRL GR, adr [, XR]
Description: Logical bitwise shift. The content of the register is shifted bitwise to the left or
right by the number of bits indicated by adr (plus the optional content of XR).
PUSH
Format:
PUSH adr [, XR]
Description: Writes the contents of the address adr in the stack. The stack address (SP) in
register GR4 is set to this new TOP stack address.
POP
Format:
POP GR
Description: Writes the contents of the TOP address of the stack to the specified register.
The TOP stack address (SP) in register GR4 is set to the previous stack
address.
CALL
Format:
CALL adr [, XR]
Description: Calls a subroutine at the specified address adr. The return address (address
after CALL) is placed on the stack.
RET
Format:
RET
Description: Returns from a subprogram back to the calling program (CALL). The return
address is taken from the stack.
9.11.3. Assembler Syntax
Label
command
operand
Description
[Label]
START
[Start Label]
Indicates the beginning of the program
END
End of the program
[Label]
DC
constant
Defines numbers or strings
[Label]
DS
Number of words
Defines a memory area
[Label]
IN
String length
Reads characters from the screen
[Label]
OUT
String length
Writes characters to the screen
[Label]
EXIT
Program return
[Label]
WRITE
Output registers to the screen
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START
Format:
START [label]
Description: Indicates start of a CASL program. Optionally, a label can be specified where
program execution should be started. Otherwise, the command following the
START statement is executed.
END
Format:
END
Description: Sets the end of the CASL program.
DC
Format:
DC n
DC #h
DC 'string'
DC label
Description: Define constant. Parameters for the various constant types are listed below:
n
: Defines a number constant (decimal). The value of the
constant must be between -32768 and 65535.
#h
: Defines a number constant (hexadecimal). The value of the
constant must be between #0000 and #FFFF.
'string' : Defines a string. Each byte is stored in the right half of an
address (16 bits). From the character code table, the characters
32 – 38 (&H20 – &H26), 40 – 95 (&H28 – &H5F), 97 – 122
(&H61 – &H7A), 166 – 223 (&HA6 – &HDF) can be used.
No length is stored within the string. The program has to
know how long the string is.
label
: Defines a constant containing the address of the given label.
DS
Format:
DS [n]
Description: Defines a memory area containing n words. If the number is 0, only the label
for the next following address is defined.
Special note: if n is assigned #0000 during program execution, the
execution of the program is interrupted. * STP * will appear
in the register display. This can be used to stop the program
in one place to check or change registers and memory. The
command counter is incremented by 2, so that at the next
start, the program can be continued. However, it should be
noted that two words with #0000 (for example, with 2x ÍDC
0Í) must be defined in the program because the program
counter is always increased by two.
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9.11.4. Macro Commands
IN
Format:
IN adr, length
Description: Enter characters from the keyboard. The input prompt is a question mark ('?').
The entry is completed by pressing
. The first operand is the address where
the input should be written. The address of the second operand contains the
number of characters read. Pressing
will skip the next entry and pass the
number 65536 (#FFFF).
OUT
Format:
OUT adr, length
Description: Output a string. This command corresponds to the BASIC command PRINT.
The first operand is the address where the characters are to be output. The
second operand specifies the address where the number of characters to be
output must be stored. The program is interrupted after the output and may be
resumed by pressing
.
EXIT
Format:
EXIT
Description: Ends the execution of the program.
WRITE
Format:
WRITE
Description: Returns the contents of the registers on the screen. Press
to continue the
program.
9.11.5. Sample Program
10
START
20
IN
A, C
Read characters in A
25
OUT
NL, N
Output of 9x'P' as separation
30
OUT
A, B
Output of the first 2 characters of A
40
EXIT
end program execution
50A
DS
20
Input buffer with 20 words (characters)
60B
DC
2
Output length 2
70C
DS
1
Storage of the number of read characters
80N
DC
9
Output length for 9x'P'
90NL DC
'PPPPPPPPP'
String with 9x'P'
100
END
End of source program
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: CASL
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Listing of the sample program in memory:
IN
A,C
7000 101A PUSH A
7000 102F PUSH C
8000 0000 CALL #0000
1244 0002 LEA
GR4,2,GR4
OUT NL,N
7000 1031 PUSH NL
7000 1030 PUSH N
8000 0002 CALL #0002
1244 0002 LEA
GR4,2,GR4
OUT A,B
7000 101A PUSH A
7000 102E PUSH B
8000 0002 CALL #0002
1244 0002 LEA
GR4,2,GR4
EXIT
6400 0004 JMP
#0004
A DS 20
101A.. 102D #0000 (20x)
B DC 2
102E
#0002
C DS 1
102F
#0000
N DC 9
1030
#0009
NL DC ‘PP… 1031.. 1039 #0050 (9x)
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10. MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
With this computer, you can write programs in both machine language and BASIC. The
computer has a machine language monitor (hereafter referred to as "the monitor") to assist
with programming in machine language. The monitor allows you to enter or issue a specific
sequence of commands or execute machine language programs. This section describes the
functions of the machine language monitor commands for this computer.
The computer's CPU is a Z80 microprocessor (CMOS Z80A), which is commonly used in
most 8-bit computers. There are numerous books available about the Z80 processor, which
provide information about the machine language instruction set of the Z80 and other
important information. This chapter describes the behavior of the machine language monitor
commands, how to create a source program, and how to run it.
10.1. Using the Monitor
Monitor mode is selected by entering MON in BASIC mode (RUN or PRO). The following
display appears.
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*
The asterisk (*) on the display is the command prompt waiting for input. All commands are
entered here. All necessary addresses or further data can be entered here after the command.
At the end of each line, the entry must be executed by pressing
.
Example:
Command
Separator
*D0100, 01FF
Command prompt
Data (Address)
Notes:
1. If memory protection is enabled with a password, the computer cannot be set to
monitor mode.
2. All addresses and data must be in hexadecimal.
3. To separate more than one address or to separate data parts, a comma (,) is used.
4. If hexadecimal is not used or another symbol is entered other than the comma, an
error occurs (SYNTAX ERROR).
5. The monitor mode can be excited by selecting a different mode or by turning the
computer off and on again.
6. Since machine language is very complicated, it often comes down to program bugs.
When running a machine-language program, BASIC programs, data, or other parts of
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130
the computer memory may be destroyed. For this reason, it is recommended that you
back up all BASIC programs, data, or other information to a PC before running a
machine language program.
7. When using the monitor, accessing anything other than the machine language area
(assigned with the USER command) may result in the destruction of BASIC or TEXT
programs, destroy data, or cause malfunctions. Be sure to use only the intended
machine code area.
10.2. Monitor Commands
USER
Set User Memory
Format:
(1) USER01FF
(2) USER
(3) USER00FF
Description: Allocate memory for the monitor and display the addresses of this area.
Comments:
Format (1): memory address range of 0100H (start address) to 01FF (end
address) is assigned for machine code. The first address is
automatically set to 0100H.
Assigned memory
*USER01FF
FREE:0100-01FF
*
Format (2): displays the address range assigned for machine code. If no area
has been assigned for machine code, "FREE:NOT RESERVED"
is displayed.
*USER
FREE:0100-01FF
*
Format (3): deletes existing machine code assignment from memory and
displays the message "FREE:NOT RESERVED".
An error message (MEMORY ERROR) is displayed when an invalid address
range for machine code assignment is entered.
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S
Update Memory
Format:
(1) S0100
(2) S
Description: Update memory address.
Comments:
Format (1): The contents of address 0100H (first address) is displayed and
prompts for a new entry.
*S0100
0100:01-
Existing content at address
To change the memory contents, enter one byte (two digit
hexadecimal) and then press
. The computer will now show
the contents of the following memory address and will ask for
input.
If you not want to change the memory content at the current
address, press
without entering any data. The computer then
displays the contents of the following memory address and asks
for input
A maximum of two hexadecimal digits can be entered. To delete
an entry before pressing
press
or .CLS..
Press
to retrieve the contents of the previous address and
to retrieve the contents of the next address.
Format (2): Display the contents of the address immediately after the last
address specified by the S command.
Press .BREAK. to return to the command line.
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D
Display Memory
Format:
(1) D0100
(2) D
(3) D0100, 01FF
Function:
Display memory address.
Description: Format (1): Displays the first 16 bytes from the address range 0100H (first
address) to 010FH. (The output is printed in the printer mode.)
Example:
First address of
16-byte block
Checksum
0100 : 3E 01 18 04 >...
(1D) 3A 0F 01 3C :..<
32 0f 01 C9 2.."
31 00 00 00 1...
ASCII code is displayed here. Hex
values 00H-1FH are displayed as (.)
The address range of the memory displayed is set to XXX0H-
XXXFH. If the address specified is within a 16-byte block, the
entire block which contains the address is displayed. For example,
if you specify the address 0104H, the contents of the 16-byte
block, in this case 0100H-010FH, is displayed.
Press
to display the previous 16-byte block and to
display
the next 16-byte block.
Format (2): displays the contents of the block that is directly next to the last
block displayed with the D command.
Format (3): When executed in PRINTER mode, the computer prints the
contents of the areas, 0100H (first address) – 01FFH (last
address), in 16-byte increments to the printer. When the output is
finished, the command line is displayed.
The printer mode is toggled with the P command (see later) or
with .SHIFT. + .PNP..
If the computer is not in PRINTER mode, the computer will
display the contents of the 16-byte blocks on the screen,
beginning with the address 0100H (the first address). The
computer does not take into account the last address specified
during display.
To return to the command line, press .BREAK..
Checksum: Checksum refers to the sum of the values of a specific record.
This sum is calculated and assigned to a record when that record
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is written or displayed. The computer calculates the sum of the
contents of a 16-byte block output with the D command and
displays the least significant byte of the sum as the result of the
checksum. For example, if you manually enter a machine code
program that is copied from a printed program, you can check for
errors in each 16-byte block by comparing the checksum results
with the values of the original program. However, if the program
contains more than one error, the checksum may erroneously
match that of the original program.
E
Edit Memory
Format:
(1) E start-address
(2) E
Function:
Edit memory area.
Description: Format (1): memory editing will start at the specified address.
Format (2): continues editing with the subsequent memory block from the last
edit.
The command S can also be used to change memory contents. The difference
is using the editor is more convenient. The editable range is 0000H – 07FFFH.
Use the cursor keys to move in the memory area.
The data is entered in hexadecimal notation 0-F. In addition to the keyboard,
the keypad can be used as follows:
7
8
9
/
(F)
4
5
6
*
(E)
1
2
3
–
(D)
0
.
(A)
=
(B)
+
(C)
Use the .TAB. key to toggle between hexadecimal input (left) and ASCII input
(right). Kana mode is not possible during editing.
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P
Toggle Printer
Format:
P
Function:
Enable or disable printer mode.
Description: The printer mode is toggled each time P is pressed (when printer mode is
activated, PRINT appears in the lower right corner of the display.)
Printer mode can also be toggled by pressing .SHIFT. + .PNP..
Note: The P command will not be executed if no printer is
connected or a connected printer is not turned on.
G
GOSUB
Format:
G address
Function:
Execute a machine code program at a specific address.
Description: The G command corresponds to the GOSUB command in BASIC. A machine
code program at the specified address will be run. Execution is complete when
a RET command (return instruction) occurs. After the return instruction, the
computer displays the command line.
Note: A program a return instruction (RET command) must be
inserted, otherwise the program will not run correctly.
Out of control programs
A “runaway” program cannot run properly because it is out of control.
Resetting the system is the only way to interrupt such a program. In most
cases, an out of control program destroys the memory contents, including
machine code programs, BASIC programs, and other data.
A machine code program can get out of control even if it contains a single
bug. For this reason, it is recommended that you save or print all BASIC
programs and other information on a PC before running a machine language
program.
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R
Receive data via the serial interface
Format:
(1) R
(2) R <address>
Function:
Receive data via the serial I / O port (SIO).
Description: The R command is used to transmit / receive data in Intel hex format over
SIO. This command is for receiving machine code from a personal computer
or other device.
Format (1): loads data into an address specified by the data.
Format (2): loads data starting at the specified address (e.g., 0100H).
After completion, the address range where the data was loaded is displayed.
To stop receiving data, press and hold the .BREAK. key until the command
prompt is displayed.
The settings for the serial interface are set in TEXT mode.
W
Send data via the serial interface
Format:
W start-address, end-address
Function:
Send data via the serial I / O port (SIO).
Description: The W command sends data in Intel Hex format from the memory area
specified (for example, W0100h, 01FF) to the serial I / O port. This command
is for sending machine codes to a personal computer or other device.
To stop sending data, press and hold the .BREAK. key until the command
prompt is displayed.
If a printer is connected to the peripheral interface male (11-pin) connector
and the W command is executed, both the computer and the printer may
malfunction. In this case, turn off the printer, and then press and hold the
.BREAK. key until the command prompt is displayed.
BP
Set Breakpoint
Format:
(1) BP address [, number]
(2) BP
(3) BP 0
Function:
Insert a breakpoint at a specific address.
Description: Format (1): inserts a breakpoint at the specified address. Up to 4 breakpoints
can be inserted at different addresses. The possible address range
is from 0000H to 7FFFH.
With number, you can specify how many times execution occurs
at the specified address before the program stops. A value of 0-
255 can be specified. Specifying 0 clears the breakpoint. If a
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number is not specified, the value is set to 1, meaning that
execution is stopped when the breakpoint is reached for the first
time.
When attempting to enter a fifth breakpoint, the first breakpoint is
deleted. Therefore, there can never be more than four breakpoints
in a program.
A breakpoint should be inserted at an instruction address (OP
code). If the breakpoint is inserted at an operand address, the
program cannot read the breakpoint and will not run properly.
Format (2): displays the address of the breakpoint. If no breakpoint has been
inserted, only the command prompt (*) appears on the following
line.
Format (3): all existing breakpoints are deleted.
A breakpoint becomes inactive after execution, so if there is a breakpoint
within a program loop, it will only be activated at the first or nth (according to
number) execution of the loop. It can be reactivated with the G command.
The computer maintains breakpoints that were set when the monitor was last
used. If the computer is set to Monitor mode from another mode, these
breakpoints can be re-enabled with the G command.
Note: The contents of an address that contains a breakpoint are
temporarily replaced with "F7H" while the program is
running. If the RESET switch is pressed before activating the
breakpoint, the contents will remain "F7H". In this case,
replace "F7H" with the original contents.
10.3. Error Messages in Monitor Mode
Following is a list of error messages that are displayed during monitor mode. To clear the
error message, press .CLS..
Error message
Description
SYNTAX ERROR
Invalid command syntax
MEMORY ERROR
An attempt was made to assign a machine code area outside the
allowable range.
I/O DEVICE ERROR Error in the data transfer or error of the checksum during an I / O
operation
OTHER ERROR
Other mistakes.
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11. ASSEMBLER
The following is a list of specialized vocabulary frequently used when dealing with machine
language programs.
Assemble,
translate:
Translate assembly language source code into a machine language.
A translated machine code program is called "object program" or
"object" for short.
Assembler:
Translation program for translating a source program into an
object program.
To generate:
Create an object from a mnemonic code.
Assembling by hand:
Manual translation of a source program without an assembler.
Machine language:
A computer language that is interpreted directly by a machine and
whose commands are executed. Displayed as hexadecimal code
(internally processed as binary code)
Mnemonic Code:
Icons designed to help the programmer keep the machine code
instructions. For example, the abbreviation "ADD" for an
additional command (additional command). A language whose
mnemonic statements have a specific match with the machine
code is called "assembly language".
Patch:
A fully assembled program that is ready to load into a computer.
The term generally refers to a machine code program that has been
translated by a source program. Sometimes referred to simply as
an "object". ("Object" can either refer to an individual machine
code resulting from a translation, or it can refer to a whole
machine language program.)
Pseudo-instruction:
A sequence of assembler control commands that are not translated
into a machine code program. Such a sequence is used to
determine an address, store a machine code program or generate
data.
Source program:
A program written in a mnemonic code (assembly language). A
machine code program is a translation of a source program.
11.1. Programming with the Assembler
An assembler program is translated into object code (the machine code program). However,
error conditions can occur during program execution. If the machine program contains one or
more bugs, the following error states may occur:
The program is stuck in an infinite loop and stops responding to keypresses. To
interrupt the endless loop, press the .RESET. button.
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The program will display random or nonsensical characters or show other issues. In
some cases, the program may be stopped using the .BREAK. button, but in other
cases, the .RESET. button must be pressed.
Parts or the whole program will be destroyed or lost. In this case, there is a memory
error. It can also lead to the destruction of source programs (TEXT), BASIC programs
or all data on the computer, including the machine code program.
These problems can occur individually or simultaneously. If any of these problems occur and
you cannot determine what is happening, press the .RESET. key to clear all memory.
Problems (1) and (2) are called "runaway programs". A brief guide to programming the Z80
processor can be found in APPENDIX L: Z80 PROGRAMMING .
11.1.1. Example Program
The following program loads the hexadecimal numbers 20H – 9FH to memory addresses
0400H – 477FH (the H at the end indicates that it is a hexadecimal notation):
10
ORG
0100H
20START: LD
A, 20H
30
LD
HL, 0400H
40LBL:
LD
(HL), A
50
INC
A
60
INC
HL
70
CP
0A0H
80
JP
NZ, LBL
90
RET
100
END
Note: One or more spaces can be inserted with the .SPACE. or .TAB. key.
Description of the example program:
10: (Load the object starting at address 0100H).
20: Load 20H into the register A.
30: Load 0400H into the register pair HL.
40: Load content in register A into an address specified by register pair HL
50: Increase the value of register A by one and load the result into register A.
60: Increase the value of register pair HL by one and load the result in HL.
70: Compare the contents of register A with the value A0H (A0H-content of A).
80: If the result of the last operation is not zero (content of A ≠ A0H), jump to the label
LBL (the label is translated into address 0105H).
90: Return from the subroutine.
100: (end of source program).
Lines 10 and 100 of this source program are called pseudo-instructions. They are used to
control the assembler and are not converted into machine codes (objects).
Note: After entering all the lines of this example program, double check for
errors. Before assembling the source program, a memory block must be
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assigned to store the machine code, otherwise it is not possible to
assemble the source program.
11.1.2. Assign Machine Code Area
To assign a machine code area, the USER command is used in monitor mode.
First, monitor mode is selected.
.BASIC. MON
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*
Next, memory is allocated for machine code with the USER command. In this example, a
block of memory from 0100H to 04FFH is allocated.
USER 04FF
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*
The computer displays the assigned machine
code area (user area).
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*USER04FF
FREE:0100-04FF
*
11.1.3. Assemble Source Program
The source program of this example can be converted into machine code.
Select the assembler function .SHIFT. + .ASMBL.
(The size of the work area may be different than
that shown in this example.)
***** ASSEMBLER *****
user area=0100H-04FFH
work area=29221bytes
< ASM Display Print >
Press ..A.. to start assembling.
***** ASSWMBLER *****
--- assembling ---
When the assembly is complete, a screen similar
to the one shown on the right appears.
object:0100H-010DH
size :000EH( 14)bytes
label : 2
error : 0 complete !
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If an error occurs during the assembly, the
computer displays the corresponding error
message and the line number at which the error
occurred. In this case, go back to the editor and
correct the source program.
***** ASSEMBLER *****
*FORMAT ERROR (1)
0105 **** 40
LBL: LD HL),A
11.1.4. Check Generated Object Program
The generated object program is checked with the monitor. The program is stored from
0100H to 010DH.
Enter MONITOR mode. Press .CLS. (or .BASIC.
MON
).
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*
Display the object program with the D
command: D0100
. The computer displays the
mapped dump of the object program.
0100 : 3E 20 21 00 > !.
(88) 04 77 3C 23 .w<#
FE A0 C2 05 . Ã.
01 C9 00 00 .È..
Note: Prior memory contents can be seen starting
at 010DH (C9). (88) is the checksum.
11.1.5. Run Object (Machine Code) Program
Now the generated object program can be run. The monitor command G (GOSUB) is used.
Display the command prompt for MONITOR
mode.
.BREAK.
*
Use the G command to run the object program:
G0100
After execution, the command line of the
monitor is displayed.
*G0100
*
The result of the program execution is checked:
D0400
0400 : 20 21 22 23 !" #
(78) 24 25 26 27 $%&'
28 29 2A 2B ()*+
2C 2D 2E 2F ,-./
0410 : 30 31 32 33 0123
34 35 36 37 4567
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The hexadecimal numbers 20H to 9FH were
written to the address range 0400H to 047FH
0410 : 30 31 32 33 0123
(78) 34 35 36 37 4567
38 39 3A 3B 89:;
3C 3D 3E 3F <=>?
0420 : 40 41 42 43 @ABC
44 45 46 47 DEFG
11.2. Coding / Editing a Source Program
The assembler translates (assembles) the source program stored in the TEXT area into a
machine code program. The assembled machine code program is sequentially loaded into a
memory area starting at the specified address.
This section describes the conventions and rules (input formats, etc.) used when creating a
source program.
11.2.1. Source Program Format
Each line of a source program usually contains a single statement. A program generally
consists of a few lines. Assembly language source code begins with an ORG statement and
ends with an END statement (the ORG and END statements can be omitted).
Example:
10
ORG 0100H
⋮
100 END
The ORG instruction is used to specify the first address of the memory area in which the
generated machine code program is to be stored. This means that the lines of the machine
code program are stored in order, starting from the address determined by the ORG
instruction. If no address is determined, the computer uses 0100H as the first address. The
END statement indicates the end of the source program. The computer stops assembling when
it reaches this statement.
These instructions serve to control the assembler; they are not converted into a machine code.
11.2.2. Line Format (Instructions)
Each line of the source program consists of a line number, a label, a command, an operand, a
comment, or a pseudo-command.
32776 LABEL: ADD HL, 30;SAMPLE
Line number
Label
Command
Operands
Comment
A colon (:)
Commands are
Comments are separated
must appear
separated from
from operators by
after the label
operators by
a semicolon
a space
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One line can consist of up to 254 characters, including the comment. Small and capital letters
are processed like capital letters, except when they are used in operands or comments.
Line Number
If a line number outside the allowable range of 1 to 65279 is entered, the error
message "LINE NO, ERROR" will be displayed.
Label:
A label can be inserted directly after the line number (there must be no empty space
between the line number and the label, otherwise an error will occur). Labels can
consist of up to six characters. If there are more than six characters, an error occurs.
The following characters can be used for labels:
Letters: A to Z (a to z are read like A to Z).
Numbers: 0 to 9
Symbols: [, ], @, ?, and _
The first character of a label must be a letter or a symbol (a number cannot be
distinguished from the line number).
A label using the same characters or pairs of characters as the following registers or
condition codes cannot be used:
1. Single register: A, B, C, D, E, H, L, I, R
2. Register pairs: AF, BC, DE, HL, IX, IY, SP
3. Condition code: NZ, Z, NC, C, PO, PE, P, M?
A label must be followed by a colon (:), otherwise an error will occur. An exception
is the definition of a value for a label with the pseudo-command EQU; in this case, no
colon must follow the label.
If no label is required, one or more spaces must be inserted between the line number
and the following command word. To insert spaces, use the .SPACE. or .TAB. key.
Commands (OP code)
A Z80 command can be entered as a mnemonic symbol. Other pseudo-instructions
can also be inserted here. A command is part of a statement called statement code or
OP code.
The command entered must be separated from the following operand by one or more
spaces. To insert spaces, use the .SPACE. or .TAB. key.
Operand field
Operands are registers, addresses or constants used in executing instructions. Each
operand can consist of up to 32 characters and are separated by commas (,). The
following types of constants can be used as operands:
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Numeric constants
Binary, decimal or hexadecimal numbers:
Binary
: Represented as a sequence of 1 and 0, with a "B" at the end.
Examples: 10111100B, 100000B
Decimal
: Shown as base 0 to 9. Examples: 188, 32
Hexadecimal : Represented by decimal numbers 0 to 9 and the capital letters A to
F; with an "H" in the end. If a hexadecimal number begins with a
letter, it must begin with a "0" to distinguish it from a command.
Examples: 0BCH, 20H
String constants
Character strings for operands must be in single quotes (') be included. ASCII
representations of characters are used as constants in operands. For example:
(Specification)
(string)
(constants)
'A'
A
41H
'FROM'
FROM
41H,42H
'B''C'
B'C
42H,27H,43H
'''D'
'D
24H,44H
'E'''
E'
45H,27H
''''
'
27H
''
(ZERO)
00H
Label constants
If a constant is defined for a label with the EQU command, this label can be used
as a constant in an operand. Expressions (including arithmetic operators) can be
used as operands. The following characters and arithmetic operators can be used
in operands, however, no operator takes precedence over another.
Signs: positive (+), negative (-)
Operators: *, /, +, -
The computer performs internal operations with 16-bit data. A capacity overrun is
ignored (no error occurs). The object is generated with an 8-bit or 16-bit result.
For statements with expressions, the computer does not check for the correctness
of the expression.
Examples: LD A, 4142H -> Read as LD A, 42H
DB 1234H -> Read as DB 34H?
Comments
Each line of a source program can be followed by a comment, separated by a
semicolon (;). The part of the line from a semicolon to the end of the line is
considered a comment and not translated into machine code (object),
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11.2.3. Deleting a Source Program
Display the main menu in TEXT mode and press ..D.. to select the delete function. The
computer asks for security whether the content of the TEXT area should be deleted. (If no
program is stored in the TEXT area, the computer does not respond to pressing ..D...)
TEXT DELETE OK? (Y)
To delete all information in the TEXT area, press the ..Y.. key. The computer returns to the
main menu of the TEXT mode. Pressing a button other than ..Y.. returns the computer to the
TEXT mode main menu without erasing anything.
11.2.4. Entering a Source Program
Display the main menu in TEXT mode. Press ..E.. to select the edit function.
Pressing
or
will scroll the contents of the TEXT area, for example, a source program.
If nothing is saved, the display does not change. A new program cannot be loaded into the
TEXT area until the existing content has been completely deleted. Press .BREAK. to return to
the main menu, select the Delete function, and clear the contents of the TEXT area.
Follow the steps described in the above section to delete a source program.
1. Enter the line number
2. If no label is required, one or more spaces can be inserted by pressing .TAB. or
.SPACE.. The cursor moves back to the input field for commands.
A label is entered immediately after the line number, without a space. The label must
end with a colon (:). After the colon, one or more blanks can be inserted as desired.
3. Enter a command. If an operand follows the instruction, it must be separated from the
instruction by one or more spaces (press .TAB. or .SPACE.).
4. Enter the operands. Operands are separated by commas (,).
5. If you want to annotate this line, a semicolon (;) must be entered before the comment.
6. After entering the entire line, press
to save the line. The cursor disappears after
is pressed.
To enter additional lines, the above steps are repeated.
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11.3. Assembler Functions
This section describes in detail how to assemble a source program entered in TEXT mode.
This assumes the example program is already loaded in the computer.
11.3.1. Assembler Menu
In order to assemble a source program, the assembler has to be activated.
.SHIFT. + .ASMBL.
The assembler menu shown to the
right appears.
***** ASSEMBLER *****
user area=0100H-04FFH
work area=29221bytes
< ASM Display Print >
User (machine code) area: address 0100h–04FFH
Rough work area: 29221 bytes
..A..: Assemble program
..D..: Display assembled program
..P..: Print assembled program
The menu shows the assigned machine code area on the second line. To assign the machine
code area, the USER command is used in MONITOR mode. If no machine code area has been
assigned or the area is too small to save the object, an error message (NOT RESERVED or
USER AREA OVER) is displayed during assembly. In this case, use .BASIC. MON
to
select the monitor mode and assign or enlarge the machine code area with the USER
command.
The third line of the assembler menu specifies the size of the existing work area in bytes.
This shows the byte count of the free area in memory. The value corresponds to the number
obtained with the FRE command from BASIC.
The workspace required for the conversion process is automatically assigned in free space. If
the workspace cannot be assigned, a WORK AREA OVER error message will be displayed. In
this case, increase the free space by deleting existing BASIC programs or other data, or
reduce the machine code area.
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Note: An error occurs if there are less
than 307 bytes of free space
while the computer is in
ASMBL mode. If a source
program contains labels, the
assembler provides a label
workspace with the necessary
size. An error occurs if the
assembler cannot assign this
necessary area.
Memory Map
0100H
Object code
User space
(Machine code)
Program storage
(RAMDISK)
Source code
Text space
BASIC programs
Workspace
Free space
Variables
11.3.2. Assembling
Successful Assembly
To start assembling, press ..A.. while the
assembler menu is displayed.
***** ASSEMBLER *****
--- assembling ---
During operation, "--assembling--" is
displayed. At the completion of the process,
"complete !" is displayed as well as the
object area, size of the object code, the number
of labels, and the number of errors.
object:0100H-010DH
size :000EH( 14)bytes
label : 2
error : 0 complete !
Press .CLS. to return to monitor mode. In MONITOR mode, you can check the assembled
object program with the D command or have it executed with the G command.
Unsuccessful Assembly
If an error is found in the source program during assembly, the assembler ends the process
and displays a corresponding error message and the line number where the error was found.
To continue assembling, press
.
For example, assume that the example program contains an error in lines 50 and 80:
50
INB A
.....
"INC A" is correct.
⋮
80
JP
NZ, KBL
.....
"JP NZ, LBL" is correct.
Press the ..A.. key while the assembler menu is displayed to assemble the program with the
specified errors.
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When the first error is found, the error message
shown on the right is displayed
***** ASSEMBLER *****
*OPECODE ERROR
0106 **** 50
INB A
Address
Command Operand
Object (see note)
Line number
Error message indicates an OP code error.
Note: When the assembler cannot generate correct
object code because of an error in the source
program, a series of asterisk will be displayed
after the corresponding address.
Press
to continue assembling. Now the error
message for the second error is shown in line 80.
***** ASSEMBLER *****
*UNDEFINED SYMBOL
0109 **** 80
JP NZ,KB
Error message (an undefined symbol is used for a
label)
Press
again. The last screen of the assembler
appears, but this time without the message
"complete !".
object:0100H-010CH
size :000DH( 13)bytes
label : 2
error : 2
At the last screen, press .CLS. to return to the assembler menu.
Notes: The assembler ignores the statement from line 50 and assumes that the
label of line 80 specifies the address 0000H. At this point the example
program is assembled.
If an error is found in the source program, the generated object code also
has errors. When executing the object program, the program may become
out of control or destroy the memory contents. The source program must
be corrected and reassembled, so that the object program can run without
error.
Displaying the Object Code
With the display option, the object program can be checked before the source program is
compiled. The assembler log contains the machine code program to be generated, its
addresses and further object information.
Pressing ..D.. while the assembler menu is displayed displays the first line of the assembler
log. Pressing
will display subsequent lines for review. Load the above sample program if
it is not already loaded and check its assembled object code.
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Press ..D.. in ASSEMBLER mode.
**** ASSEMBLE LIST ****
0100 10
ORG 0100H
0100 3E20 20
.Address. .Object.
.Line number.
…………Source program…………
If the object field is empty, no object is generated.
If there are more than 8 digits of machine code,
the remaining digits are shown on the following
line.
Press
several times to see the subsequent lines
of the assembler log.
**** ASSEMBLE LIST ****
0100 10
ORG 0100H
0100 3E20 20
START:LD A,20H
0102 210004 30
LD HL,04
00H
0105 77
LBL: LD (HL),
A
0106 3C 50
INC A
0107 23 60
INC HL
0108 FEA0 70
CP 010H
010A C20501 80
JP NZ,LB
L
010D C9 90
RET
010E 100
END
**** SYMBOL TABLE ****
START :0100 LBL :0105
object:0100H-010DH
size :000EH( 14)bytes
label : 2
error : 0 complete !
The values assigned to the labels are in hexadecimal.
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Notes: Press .CLS. to return to the assembler menu.
You can check the assembler log with the display option. However, the object
code of the source program cannot be loaded into the machine code area. To load
the object code, the source program must successfully assembled.
Printing the Assembler Log
The assembler log can be printed out with the print command in the assembler menu.
Connect the optional CE-126P printer to the computer, switch on the printer and press ..P..
while the assembler menu is displayed.
Notes: If the printer option is selected without the CE-126P printer connected or
turned on, an error message will appear (* PRINTER ERROR). In this
case clear the message with .CLS. and check the printer.
The assembler log is printed, regardless of whether PRINT is displayed in
the lower right side of the display.
After printing, the assembler shows the final assembler screen. Press .CLS.
to return to the assembler menu.
The log will be printed identically to how it is shown on the display.
To cancel the printout, press and hold the .BREAK. button until the printer
stops. The display will show "--break--". Press .CLS. to go back to the
assembler menu.
Sending the Assembler Log to the Serial Interface (SIO)
The assembler log can also be sent to the serial interface by entering ..L.. in the assembler
menu. The operation is identical to the Print operation (see above).
Note: In contrast to the other assembler menu commands, the L command is not
listed on the screen.
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11.4. Assembler Pseudo-Instructions
Pseudo-instructions are used to control the assembler itself and are not converted into
machine code. This computer knows the following pseudo-commands:
ORG: Specifies the first address of the machine code area.
DEFB/DB/DEFM/DM, DEFS/DS, and DEFW/DW: define data within the operand.
EQU: define label values.
END: indicates the end of the assembly program.
The following describes some of the conventions and rules used in the explanation of the
pseudo instructions.
Expression : Expressions can be numbers, formulas, labels, or "strings."
Formulas : Formulas can be numbers, labels, or any arithmetic expressions that use
numbers or labels.
{}
: When multiple elements are combined by a curly brace, only one of these
elements can be selected.
[]
: An element within square brackets denotes an optional instruction.
[] ...
: Ellipses after square brackets indicate that the element is optional and can be
repeated.
ORG
Beginning
Format:
ORG expression
Description: Specifies the first address of the machine code area. The expression determines
the first address of an area in which the generated machine code is stored. The
machine code program is sequentially loaded into memory starting at the
address determined by this expression.
If the source program does not contain an ORG statement, the assembler takes
the statement 'ORG 100H'; This makes 100H the first address from which the
machine code is stored.
Example: ORG 0400H This instruction stores machine code starting at
address 0400H.
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DEFB / DB / DEFM / DM
Define Byte / Message
Format:
[Label:] {
DEFB
DB
DEFM
DM
} expression [, expression]…
Description: This instruction returns the least significant byte of a given number or
expression converted to machine code.
Example: DEFB 1234H; translates 1234H to the machine code "34H".
DB 1234; translates 1234 into machine code "D2H".
A string in an operand must be enclosed in quotes (“). It can consist of up to 32
characters. Individual characters of an operand string are translated in the
corresponding ASCII codes.
Example: DEFM 'DATA'; translates the individual characters of the
sequence 'DATA' into the machine code 44H, 41H, 54H and 41H.
Individual operands are separated by commas (,).
Example: DB 32w4+5,'X2'; 85H, 58H and 32H are generated in machine
code.
Sample
Source program
Machine code
Program:
10
ORG 0100H
20
LD
HL, DATA
21 0C 01
30
LD
DE, 300H
11 00 03
40
LD
BC, 5
01 05 00
50
LDIR
ED B0
60
RET
C9
70DATA: DB
'ABCDEFGH' 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
80
END
The individual characters of the operand string in line 70 are translated into
their corresponding ASCII codes. In the example program, five bytes of data
are located in an area whose first address is specified by the label DATA; they
are copied to an area starting with address 300H. This means that the data 41H,
42H, 43H, 44H and 45H are copied to the address 300H to 304H.
DEFW / DW
Define Word
Format:
[Label:] {DEFW
DW } expression [, expression]…
Description: translates the two least significant bytes of a number or string expression (two
characters or less) into machine code. Machine code bytes are ordered least
significant, most significant.
Example: DW 1234H; translates 1234H to machine codes 34H and 12H (in
order of least-significant and highest-value bytes).
DEFW 34H; 34H translates into machine codes 34H and 00H.
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A string in an operand must be enclosed in quotation marks ('). You can define
up to two characters for a string.
Example: DEFW 'DA'; translates the string 'DA' into 41H and 44H.
DW 'Z'; translates the string 'Z' into machine code 5AH and
00H.
Individual operands are separated by commas (,).
Example: DW 'AB','CD',5678H; translated into 42H, 41H, 44H, 43H,
78H and 56H.
DEFS / DS
Define Memory
Format:
[Label:] {DEFS
DS } expression [, expression]…
Description: Generates the number of NULL codes (00H) specified in the operand. 00H is a
"no operation code" (NOP) that instructs the computer to do nothing.
Example: DS 12; Generates 12 bytes with value 00H
Sample
Source program
Machine code
Program:
10
ORG 0100H
20
LD
HL, DATA
21 0C 01
30
LD
DE, 300H
11 00 03
40
LD
BC, 5
01 05 00
50
LDIR
ED B0
60
RET
C9
65
DS
4
00 00 00 00
70DATA: DB
'ABCDEFGH' 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
75nxt00: DS
500H-NXT00 (Inserts 00H at all subsequent
addresses up to 04FFH.)
80
END
This example program is just like the above, but contains additional lines 65 and
75. Line 65 allocates a memory area for later use. With line 75, NULL codes
(00H) are inserted to delete unnecessary memory contents.
EQU
Equal
Format:
[Label:] EQU expression
Description: Assign value that is specified by the operand to label.
The label is assigned a value specified by the expression. Expressions may be a
number or a string of one or two bytes. The colon (:) after the label is omitted.
Example: START EQU 1000H; assign the value 1000H to the label
START. The label can then be used as a
constant of value 1000H
OK
EQU 'Y';
Assign the value 59H to the label OK.
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END
End
Format:
END
Description: Indicates the end of a source program.
The end of a source program is determined by the END statement. The
assembler terminates the conversion process at this point. Information
following this instruction will no longer be assembled. If there is no END
statement at the end of a source program, the assembler assembles until the end
of the TEXT area.
11.5. Error Messages
This section contains a list of error messages that may be displayed during assembly, as well
as explanations of these messages. To clear the error message, press .CLS.. If assembly is
aborted when an error occurs in the source program, the
button can be pressed to resume
assembly. The error message is also cleared when the computer is set to a different operating
mode.
Error type
Description (cause)
OPECODE ERROR
Invalid OP code (command code),
FORMAT ERROR (1)
Invalid separator for operators
FORMAT ERROR (2)
Invalid code (ASCII code 01H-1FH or similar) or
characters in an operand (such codes or characters
cannot normally be entered).
FORMAT ERROR (3)
Invalid number of operands
FORMAT ERROR (4)
Invalid characters were used in a label.
FORMAT ERROR (5)
A label has more than six characters
FORMAT ERROR (6)
The string in the operand is not enclosed in quotes.
FORMAT ERROR (7)
The number of characters in an instruction or a single
operand exceeds 32? (E.g., the value of the address or
the like in an operand has too many leading zeros.)
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (1) Invalid operand.
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (2) Invalid condition (NZ, Z, NC or similar)
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (3) The value of the operand exceeds the permissible
limit.
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (4) The string in the operand exceeds the permissible
length of 32 characters.
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (5) Divide by zero.
QUESTIONABLE OPERAND (6) Other invalid values ??or expressions.
UNDEFINED SYMBOL
An undefined symbol (label) was used.
MULTI DEFINE SYMBOL
The same symbol (label) has been defined more than
once.
FILE NOT EXIST
The program to be assembled is not in the TEXT area.
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Error type
Description (cause)
USER AREA OVER
The object could not be loaded into the machine code
area. (The first address of the object area specified
with the ORG instruction is outside the machine code
area or the object has exceeded the capacity of the
machine code area during loading,)
WORK AREA OVER
The size of the free area is too small for the necessary
workspace to assemble (if the computer is in
assembler mode or assembles).
PRINTER ERROR
The printer is not ready to start or does not work.
(The printer is not connected, turned off or
inoperable due to a discharged battery.)
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12. PIC
The SHARP PC-G850V(S) has an interface for PIC devices (Peripheral Interface Controller).
This allows these controllers to be programmed with the Pocket Computer.
The following devices are supported (as of 2001):
program memory
number of pins
PIC16F627
1K words
18
PIC16F83
512 words
18
PIC16F84
1K words
18
PIC16F84A
1K words
18
PIC mode consists of two functions:
Assembler : programs are created in TEXT mode and then assembled.
Loader
: transfer the object program into the PIC module
12.1. Defining the Machine Language Area
Make sure that enough memory is reserved in the machine language area.
For the PIC interface, the system requires more than 1K words. Therefore, at least 3KByte
should be defined. Use the USER command to define a free area of 3K in the machine
language monitor:
.BASIC. MON
USER0CFF
(The memory block 0100H-0CFFH is now
reserved)
MACHINE LANGUAGE MONITOR
*USER0CFF
FREE:0100-0CFF
*
12.2. Creating / Editing a Source Program
The source program is created or edited in the same way as Z80 or CASL assembler
programs. The assembler programs must be written to conform with the MPLAB
specification.
As with the other assembler languages, only one command per line may be written. A
command line consists of a line number, label, command/opcode, operand, and comment.
<line number>[label] Opcode operand [; comment]
Example: 32767LABEL MOVLW
0x0F9 ; SAMPLE
At least one space or TAB must be before and after each command. A line, including the
comment, can be up to 254 characters long.
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Line Numbers
Each line must contain a line number. If a line number outside the allowable range of
1 to 65279 is entered, the error message "LINE NO, ERROR" is displayed.
Label
The optional label must begin immediately after the line number. The length of the
label is between 1 and 8 characters. Only alphanumeric characters (A-Z and 0-9) may
be used. The label must start with a letter.
Opcode
The opcodes of the 35-bit 14-bit kernel are given here. These include the special
assembler commands. As a delimiter to the operand, at least one blank or TAB must
be entered.
Operand
One or more operands (separated by commas). The following types of constants are
possible:
Numeric constants
Decimal
: includes 0–9. Examples: 188, 32
Hexadecimal : starts with 0x. Includes 0–9, A, B, C, E, D, F. Example 0xBC,
0x20.
Character constant
Character constants must be enclosed in single quotes (') be included. For
example:
Character
Operand
Numeric Value
A
'A'
0x41
NULL
''
0x00
Address constant
The operand is a label, e.g. an EQU statement.
Comment
The optional comment must start with a semicolon. Until the end of the line, all
subsequent characters are treated as a comment. These characters are not assembled,
therefore do not belong to the object program.
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12.3. PIC Assembler
The source program must be entered or loaded in the TEXT editor. Then change to PIC
mode:
Press .SHIFT. + .ASMBL. and then ..P.. to enter PIC
Mode
*** PIC ASSEMBLER ***
Assembler Loader
To assemble the program press ..A...
*** PIC ASSEMBLER ***
Assembler Loader
Complete! (***** words)
During assembly, “Assembling ....” appears in the lower left area. When the process
is complete, the message “Complete! (***** words)” appears, where ***** is the
size of the program in words.
12.3.1. PIC Assembler Directives
The assembler has commands to control the assembler itself and to declare definitions. These
commands are not part of the object program.
__CONFIG : Defining the configuration
ORG
: Specify address for the beginning of the program
EQU
: Define values
DW
: Define data
__CONFIG
Configuration
Format:
__CONFIG expression
Function:
Configure PIC
Description: Configuration bit for each PIC. The values to be specified can be found in the
documentation for the PIC module. According to MPASM specification, the
bits can be linked with “&” (ampersand). However, this does not work with
this computer.
Example:
__CONFIG 0x3FA8
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ORG
Set Start Address
Format:
ORG address
Function:
Define the start address of the program
Description: specifies the start address of the object program. If the ORG instruction is not
specified, a start address 0x0 (ORG 0) is assumed. A value from 0x0 to
0x1FFF can be specified, depending on the requirements of the PIC module
Example:
ORG 0x0006
EQU
Define a Constant
Format:
label EQU expression
Function:
Associates a label with a constant.
Description: The expression can be a numeric value or a character.
Example:
START EQU 0x1000
Defines the constant 0x1000 for START
OK EQU "Y"
Defines the value 0x59 for OK
DW
Define a Word
Format:
[label] DW expression
Function:
Define a word (2 bytes).
Description: The expression can be a numeric value or a character. Note that this is a 14-bit
system and the values up to 0x3FFF are allowed.
Example:
DW 0x1234
#INCLUDE
Insert a File
Format:
#INCLUDE "file"
Function:
Inserts a file for the PIC modules into the source program during assembly.
This file contains standard definitions for the specific module.
Description: These files contain LABEL definitions of the MPASM specification for a
specific module. The file specified in the operand must be enclosed in double
quotes.
The following files can be used:
PIC modules: P16F627.INC, P16F83.INC, P16F84.INC, P16F84A.INC
14bit flash memory: PIC.INC
The labels defined by the #INCLUDE statement are not included as part of the
102 labels that can be defined by the user. Each program can contain only one
#INLCUDE statement. This should be at the beginning of the program.
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Labels in the MPASM specification that are longer than 8 characters are
limited to 8 characters on this computer.
MPASM label
Label in Computer
OPTION_REC
OPTION_R
NOT_T1SYNC
NOT_T1SY
12.3.2. PIC Assembler Error Messages
Using the assembler may cause errors (see table). Press .CLS. to clear the error. You can the
correct the error (for example, in the TEXT Editor).
Error message
Description
File not exist!
No program included in the TEXT Editor
No USER AREA!
No machine language area has been defined
Not __CONFIG data!
There is no __CONFIG directive
Syntax error! (*****)
Wrong __CONFIG_Parameter
Wrong ORG parameter
The EQU command has no label
illegal memory address
No Space / TAB / CR after the operand
No Space / TAB / CR after the OPcode
Operands separated with space / TAB.
Wrong operand
Wrong OPcode
Wrong preprocessor command
Out of range! (*****)
Address, content is outside the permitted range.
Undefined label! (*****)
The specified label does not exist.
Undefined line! (*****)
The specified address is higher than that of the
allocated memory
Label too long! (*****)
The label has more than 8 characters
Out of memory! (*****)
Address in the ORG command over 8K, the
program has run out of memory, too many labels.
Multi define! (*****)
Only one #INCLUDE command may be included in
the program.
There are 2 or more identical labels
Not include file! (*****) The specified include file is invalid.
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12.4. PIC Loader
The loader transfers the successfully assembled PIC program from the machine language
area to the PIC module.
Press .SHIFT. + .ASMBL. and then ..P.. to enter PIC
Mode
*** PIC ASSEMBLER ***
Assembler Loader
To load the program, press ..L...
*** PIC ASSEMBLER ***
Assembler Loader
Complete! (***** words)
During the transfer, “Loading ....” appears in the lower left area. When the process is
complete, the message “Complete! (***** words)” appears, where ***** is the
size of the program in words.
12.4.1. PIC Loader Error Messages
When using the loader, errors may occur (see table). Press CLS to clear the error. Then you
can correct the error (for example, in the TEXT Editor).
Error message
Description
No USER AREA!
No machine language area defined
Not PIC data!
PIC data size is 0
Illegal PIC data! PIC data is larger than the machine language area.
The word in the __CONFIG parameter is incorrect
Connection error! The connection to the PIC module could not be established.
Low battery!
Weak battery was detected.
Verify error!
Error while comparing / checking the transmitted program
Break!
The transfer was aborted.
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13. BASIC COMMAND GLOSSARY
The following pages contain a listing of the BASIC commands that you can use on the
computer. Descriptions of the logical functions AND, OR, XOR, and NOT can be found in
Chapter 5: Logical Expressions.
For simplicity, the following conventions have been adopted:
expression, exp
Indicates a numeric value, numerical variable, or a formula
including numeric values and numerical variables.
variable, var
Indicates a numerical variable or string variable, including array
variables.
“string”
indicates a character string enclosed in quotation marks.
string-variable
Indicates a string variable or string array variable.
*label
Indicates a *label (both *label and “label” forms may be used with
this computer)
d:
Indicates a device name.
[ ]
The parameter in square brackets is optional. The brackets
themselves are not part of the command entry.
( )
Used to enclosed parameter values in certain commands. They
should be entered as part of the command.
" "
Used to enclose string parameter values in certain commands.
AB
A or B can be selected
P
Program execution is possible
D
Direct input operation is possible
Abbr
Most of the commands can be abbreviated. The shortest
abbreviation allowed is given in this manual.
The following abbreviations are also valid:
PR.
PRI.
PRIN.
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13.1. Scientific and Mathematical Functions
The computer has a wide range of built-in function for scientific, mathematical and statistical
calculations. All the functions listed below can be use as part of calculations when using the
computer in RUN mode in addition to use in BASIC programs.
For trigonometric functions, entries can be made in degrees, radian or gradian values as
appropriate:
DEGREE:
Set the computer to degree entry mode (the status line on the display shows
DEG). This is the default mode.
RADIAN:
Set the computer to radian entry mode (the status line on the display shows
RAD).
GRAD:
Set the computer to gradian entry mode (the status line on the display
shows GRAD).
These three modes (DEG, RAD and GRAD) can also be set within a program. Once a mode is
set, all entries for trigonometric functions must be in the units set (degree, radian or gradian
values) until the mode is changed manually or from within a program. In the following
examples, values for the trigonometric functions are in degrees.
Most functions can also be entered by pressing the corresponding function key.
It is not possible to perform manual calculations directly in PRO mode.
ABS
|𝒙|
Format:
ABS expression
Function:
Absolute value
Description: Returns the absolute value of the numeric argument. The absolute value is the
value of a number, regardless of its sign.
Example:
ABS -10
10
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ACS
𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
ACS expression
See also:
ASN, ATN, COS
Function:
Inverse or arc cosine
Description: Returns the arc cosine of the expression.
The value of expression must be in the range of -1 ≤ expression ≤ 1. Since the
arc cosine function is the inverse of the cosine function, the returned value is
an angle. The result is dependent on the current angle mode (DEG, RAD, or
GRAD) and falls in the following ranges:
Degrees: 0° … 180°
Radians: 0 … π
Gradians: 0 … 200
The corresponding key is .COS-1..
Example:
DEGREE
ACS -0.5
120
10:DEGREE
20:PRINT "arccos(0.5) =";ACS(.5);” degrees”
30:PRINT "arccos(0) =";ACS(0);" degrees"
40:END
>
RUN
arccos(0.5) = 60 degrees
arccos(0) = 90 degrees
>
AHC
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
AHC expression
See also:
AHS, AHT, HCS
Function:
Inverse hyperbolic cosine
Description: Returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of expression.
Example:
AHC 10
2.993222846
AHS
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
AHS expression
See also:
AHC, AHT, HSN
Function:
Inverse hyperbolic sine
Description: Returns the inverse hyperbolic sine of expression
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Example:
AHS 27.3
4.000369154
AHT
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
AHT(expression)
See also:
AHS, AHC, HTN
Function:
Inverse hyperbolic tangent
Description: Returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent of expression.
Example:
AHT 0.7
0.867300527
ASN
𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
ASN expression
See also:
ACS, ATN, SIN
Function:
Inverse or arc sine
Description: Returns the arc sine of expression.
The value of expression must be in the range of -1 ≤ expression ≤ 1. Since the
arc sine function is the inverse of the sine function, the returned value is an
angle. The result is dependent on the current angle mode (DEG RAD, or
GRAD) and falls in the following ranges:
Degrees: -90° … 90°
Radian:
-π/2 … π/2
Gradians: -100 … 100
The corresponding key is .SIN-1..
Example:
DEGREE
ASN 0.5
30
10:DEGREE
20:PRINT "arcsin(0.5) =";ASN(.5);” degrees”
30:PRINT "arcsin(0) =";ASN(0);" degrees"
40:END
>
RUN
arccos(0.5) = 30 degrees
arccos(0) = 0 degrees
>
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ATN
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
Format:
ATN expression
See also:
ACS, ASN, TAN
Function:
Inverse or arc tangent
Description: Returns the arc tangent of expression.
There is no restriction on the value of expression. Since the arc tangent
function is the inverse of the tangent function, the returned value is an angle.
The result is dependent on the current angle mode (DEG, RAD, or GRAD) and
falls within the following ranges:
Degrees: -90° … 90°
Radian:
-π/2 … π/2
Gradians: -100 … 100
The corresponding key is .TAN-1..
Example:
DEGREE
ATN 1
45
10: DEGREE
15: WAIT 100
20: GOSUB 100
30: FOR DX = 0 TO 100
40: X = DX * .1
50: F = ATN (X): Z = Z + 1
60: IF Z = 3 THEN GOSUB 100
70: PRINT ""; STR$ (X), F
80: NEXT DX
90: END
100: CLS: PRINT "ARGUMENT", "ARC-TANGENT"
110: Z = 0: RETURN
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COS
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Format:
COS expression
See also:
ACS, SIN, TAN
Function:
Cosine
Description: Returns the cosine of the angle expression
The specified angle can be in degrees, radians, or gradians. To obtain the
correct value, the computer must be in the correct angle mode (DEG, RAD,
GRAD). The corresponding key is .COS.
Example:
DEGREE
COS 120
-0.5
10:DEGREE
20:G$=CHR$ (&F8)
30:PRINT "cos(60";G$;") = ";COS(60)
40:PRINT "cos(90";G$;") = ";COS(90)
50:END
>RUN
cos(60°) = 0.5
cos(90°) = 0
>
CUB
𝒙𝟑
Format:
CUB expression
See also:
CUR
Function:
Cube
Description: Returns the cube of expression.
Example:
CUB 3
27
CUR
√𝒙
𝟑
Format:
CUR expression
See also:
CUB
Function:
Cube root
Description: Returns the cube root of expression.
Example:
CUR 125
5
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DEG
dd°mm’ss” → ddd.dddd°
Format:
DEG expression
See also:
DMS, VDEG
Function:
“degrees, minutes, seconds” (sexagesimal) to decimal conversion.
Description: Converts the angle argument in DMS (degrees, minutes, seconds) format to
the DEG (decimal degrees) format. The angle to be converted must be in the
form dd.mmssrr, where:
dd
: degrees
mm : minutes
ss
: seconds
rr
: fractional seconds (00 ... 99)
The following ranges must be observed:
hh : 0 to …
mm : 00 to 59
ss
: 00 to 59
rr
: 00 to 99
The result is displayed with up to ten significant digits. The corresponding
function key is .→DEG..
Example:
DEG 30.5230
(30°52'30")
30.875
10:X = DEG 50.3000
20:PRINT X
30:END
> RUN
50.5
>
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DMS
ddd.dddd° → dd°mm’ss”
Format:
DMS expression
See also:
DEG, VDEG
Function:
Decimal to "degrees, minutes, seconds" (sexagesimal) conversion
Description: Converts the angle expression in decimal degree format to "degrees, minutes,
seconds" format.
The result of the angle conversion is in the form dd°mm’ss.rr”, where:
dd
: degrees
mm : minutes
ss
: seconds
rr
: fractional seconds (00 ... 99)
The corresponding function key is .→DMS..
Example:
DMS 124.8055
124.48198 (124°48'19.8")
10:X = DMS 50.5
20: PRINT X
30: END
>RUN
50°30’
>
EXP
𝒆𝒙
Format:
EXP expression
See also:
LN, LOG, ^, TEN
Function:
Exponential
Description: Returns the value of e (~2.718281828…the base of natural logarithms) raised
to the value of expression.
Expression can be a numeric constant, variable or a numeric expression. The
corresponding function key is .𝑒𝑥..
Example:
EXP 1.2
3.320116923
>PRINT EXP (10)
220026.46579
>
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FACT
𝒏!
Format:
FACT expression
Function:
Factorial
Description: Returns the factorial of expression.
Example:
FACT 7
5040
>PRINT FACT (7)
>RUN
5040
>
FIX
Format:
FIX expression
See also:
INT
Function:
Integer
Description: Returns the integer portion of expression. If expression is negative, FIX
returns the first negative integer greater than or equal to expression.
Example:
FIX -8.4
-8
HCS
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙
Format:
HCS expression
See also:
AHC, HSN, HTN
Function:
Hyperbolic cosine
Description: Returns the hyperbolic cosine of expression.
Example:
HCS 3
10.067662
HSN
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙
Format:
HSN expression
See also:
AHS, HCS, HTN
Function:
Hyperbolic sine
Description: Returns the hyperbolic sine of expression.
Example:
HSN 4
27.2899172
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HTN
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
Format:
HTN expression
See also:
AHT, HCS, HSN
Function:
Hyperbolic tangent
Description: Returns the hyperbolic tangent of expression.
Example:
HTN 0.9
0.71629787
INT
Format:
INT expression
See also:
FIX
Function:
Integer
Description: Returns the integer portion of expression. If expression is negative, INT will
return the first negative integer smaller than or equal to expression.
Example:
INT -1.9
-2
LN
𝐥𝐨𝐠𝒆 𝒙
Format:
LN expression
See also:
EXP, LOG, ^, TEN
Function:
Natural logarithm
Description: Returns the logarithm of the base e (~2.718281828 ...) of expression.
This function is the inverse of the EXP function. Any numerical expression is
allowed, provided that its result is within the permissible value range. The
corresponding function key is .ln..
Example:
LN 2
0.69314718
10:CLS: INPUT "ARGUMENT ="; X
20:PRINT "THE LOGARITHM TO THE BASE"
30:PRINT "e IS:"; LN (X)
40:INPUT "FURTHER CALCULATION (Y/N)"; A$
50:IF A$ = "Y" THEN 10
60:END
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LOG
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
Format:
LOG expression
See also:
EXP, LN, ^, TEN
Function:
Common logarithm
Description: Returns the common (base 10) logarithm of expression.
To obtain a logarithm in a base other than 10, e.g. for any base B, use the
following formula:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐵𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = log 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
log 𝐵
The inverse of the common logarithm can be calculated with the power
operator (^), if one chooses the number 10 as the power base. The
corresponding function key is .log..
NCR
nCr =
𝒏!
𝒓!(𝒏−𝒓)!
Format:
NCR(expression1,expression2)
See also:
NPR
Function:
Combination
Description: Returns the number of combinations of expression2 elements out of a group of
expression1 elements. The corresponding key is .nCr..
Example:
NCR(6,3)
20
NPR
nPr =
𝒏!
(𝒏−𝒓)!
Format:
NPR(expression1,expression2)
See also:
NCR
Function:
Permutation
Description: returns the number of permutations of expression2 elements out of a group of
expression1 elements. The corresponding key is .nPr..
Example:
NPR(6,3)
120
PI
𝝅
Format:
PI
Function:
𝜋
Description: PI is a numeric pseudo variable that has the value of 𝜋. The use of PI is
identical to the use of the .. 𝜋.. key.
Example:
PI
3.141592654
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POL
(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒓, 𝜽)
Format:
POL(expression1,expression2)
See also:
REC
Function:
Rectangular to polar coordinate conversion
Description: Converts the rectangular coordinate pair (expression1, expression2) to polar
coordinates. Expression1 is the distance from the y-axis and expression2 is the
distance from the x-axis (the order is reversed). The distance and the angle in
the polar coordinates are assigned to the fixed variables Y and Z, respectively.
The value of converted angle depends on the angle mode (DEG, RAD or
GRAD).
Example:
DEGREE
POL(8,6)
10 (r = 10)
Z
36.86989765
(𝜃 ≈ 36.9°)
10:X=POL (10,10)
20:PRINT X
30:PRINT Z
40:END
>RUN
14.14213562
45.
>
^ (Power)
𝒚𝒙
Format:
expression1^expression2
Function:
xth power
Description: Returns expression1 raised to the expression2 power. The corresponding
function key is .. 𝑦𝑥
...
Example:
4^2.5
32
RCP
𝟏 𝒙
⁄
Format:
RCP expression
Function:
Reciprocal
Description: Returns the reciprocal of expression
Example:
RCP 4
0.25
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REC
(𝒓, 𝜽) → (𝒙, 𝒚)
Format:
REC(expression1,expression2)
See also:
POL
Function:
Polar to rectangular coordinate conversion
Description: Converts the polar coordinate pair (expression1, expression2) to rectangular
coordinates. Expression1 is the distance from the origin while expression2 is
the angle. The angle can be in degrees, radians, or gradians. To obtain the
correct value, the computer must be set to the correct angle mode (DEG, RAD
or GRAD). The converted values indicate the distances from the x-axis and y-
axis, and are assigned to the fixed variables Y and Z, respectively.
Example:
DEGREE
REC(12,30)
10.39230485 (x ≈ 10.4)
Z
6 (y = 6)
10:X=REC (12,30)
20:PRINT X
30:PRINT Z
40:END
>RUN
10.39230485
6.
>
SGN
Format:
SGN expression
Function:
Sign
Description: Returns the sign of the expression. Expression can be any numeric expression.
If x > 0, the function returns 1.
If x < 0, the function returns -1.
If x = 0, the function returns 0.
Example:
5:WAIT 100
10:FOR N = -2 TO 2
20:PRINT N, SGN (N)
30:NEXT N
40:END
> RUN
-2 -1
-1 -1
0 0
1 1
2 1
>
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SIN
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Format:
SIN expression
See also:
ASN, COS, TAN
Function:
Sine
Description: Returns the sine of expression. The specified angle can be in degrees, radians,
or gradians. To obtain the correct value, the computer must be in the correct
angle mode (DEG, RAD, GRAD). The corresponding function key is .SIN..
Example:
DEGREE
SIN 30
0.5
10:DEGREE
20:G$ = CHR$(&F8)
30:PRINT "sin (30";G$; ") =";SIN(30)
40:PRINT "sin (45";G$; ") =";SIN(45)
50:END
>
RUN
sin (30°) = 0.5
sin (45°) = 7.071067812E-01
>
SQR
√𝒙
Format:
SQR expression
See also:
SQU
Function:
Square root
Description: Returns the positive square root of expression. The value of expression must
be zero or positive. If expression is negative, ERROR 22 is displayed. The
corresponding function key is .√x..
Example:
SQR 3
1.732050808
SQU
𝒙𝟐
Format:
SQU expression
See also:
SQR
Function:
Square
Description: Returns the square of expression. The corresponding key is ..x2...
Example:
SQU 4
16
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TAN
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
Format:
TAN expression
See also:
ATN, COS, SIN
Function:
Tangent
Description: Returns the tangent of expression. The specified angle can be in degrees,
radians, or gradians. To obtain the correct value, the computer must be in the
correct angle mode (DEG, RAD, GRAD). Because the value of TAN is
undefined at certain angles, an error code will be displayed at these angles.The
corresponding key is .TAN..
Example:
DEGREE
TAN 45
1
10:DEGREE
15:WAIT 128
20:PRINT "ANGLE IS IN DEGREES!"
30:PRINT "ANGLE: 0, TANGENT:";TAN(0)
40:PRINT "ANGLE: 45, TANGENT:";TAN(45)
50:PRINT "ANGLE: 90, TANGENT:";TAN(90)
> RUN
ANGLE IS IN DEGREES!
ANGLE: 0, TANGENT: 0
ANGLE: 45, TANGENT: 1
ANGLE: 90, TANGENT:
ERROR 20 IN 70 (press CLS key!)
TEN
𝟏𝟎𝒙
Format:
TEN expression
See also:
EXP, LN, LOG, ^
Function:
Common antilogarithm
Description: Returns the value of 10 (the base of the common log) raised to the value of
expression. The corresponding key is .10x..
Example:
TEN 3
1000
&H
Function:
Hexadecimal to decimal conversion
Description: Converts a hexadecimal value to a decimal value.
Example:
&HF82
3970
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13.2. General Commands
ASC
Format:
ASC("string"string-variable)
Abbr:
AS.
See also:
CHR$
Description: Returns the ASCII code
If string consists of more than one character, the ASCII code of the first
character is returned. The relationship between the ASCII code and the
associated character is shown in Appendix H: Table of Character Codes.
Example:
10: WAIT 0: CLS
20: PRINT "PLEASE ENTER A CHARACTER OR"
30: INPUT "ENTER A STRING:", S$
40: WAIT 100
50: PRINT "THE ASCII CODE IS:"; ASC (S$)
60: END
>RUN
PLEASE ENTER A CHARACTER OR STRING: SHARP
THE ASCII CODE IS: 83
>RUN
PLEASE ENTER A CHARACTER OR STRING:
⋮
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AUTO
Format:
AUTO [[line-number] [, increment]]
See also:
RENUM
Description: automatic insertion of line numbers in PRO mode.
The AUTO command can be used to facilitate programming in PRO mode by
automatically generating line numbers.
The starting line number and incremental value may be specified. If not
specified, the computer automatically sets the first line number to 10 and the
increment to 10. However, if the AUTO command has been previously set to
other values, those values are used. An error is generated if the starting line
number exceeds 65279.
When the mode is changed from PRO to RUN and then back to PRO, entering
AUTO assumes the previously set increment and resumes line numbering from
the most recently generated line number.
Pressing .SHIFT. + .CA., turning the power off then on, or entering an
operation mode other than PRO or RUN will exit AUTO.
Example:
AUTO
10,20,30,40, ......
AUTO 100
100,110,120, ......
AUTO 400,20
400,420,440, ......
BEEP
Format:
BEEP number [, [tone] [, duration]]
Description: generates beeps of the specified tone and duration through the computer’s
internal speaker..
number : determines how often the beep will sound. Specify a number or
expression between 0 ... 65535.
tone
: specifies the frequency of the beep in the range of 255 to 0. As the
value of the tone parameter increases, the frequency drops. A value
of 0 is about 7 kHz. A value of 255 is about 230 Hz
If this parameter is missing, the default frequency is approximately
4 kHz.
duration : determines the duration of a beep in the range of 0 to 65279. The
beep duration varies with the tone parameter. A given duration
value will give a relatively longer beep at low frequencies.
If the duration is omitted, a default value of 160 is set.
If the tone is omitted, the frequency of the beep is set to approximately 4kHx
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BLOAD
Format:
BLOAD ["filename"]
Abbr:
BLO.
See also:
BLOAD?, BSAVE
Description: loads a BASIC program from cassette to the computer. If "filename" is
specified, the computer will search the tape for a program with the label
"filename" then load the program. If "filename" is not found, the
computer continues to search even if the end of the tape is reached. Press
.BREAK. to stop searching.
BLOAD can also be used to load a BASIC program from another Sharp PC-
G850 into memory via the serial (11-pin) interface.
The BSAVE must be entered simultaneously on the second Sharp.
Note: This transmission uses an internal protocol and is therefore
not suitable for exchanging data between the Sharp PC-
G850 and a PC. Likewise, the parameters for the serial
interface in TEXT mode under SIO are ignored.
BLOAD M
Format:
BLOAD M [start-address]
Abbr:
BLO. M
See also:
BSAVE M
Description: loads a machine code program from cassette to the computer. The program is
loaded starting at start-address and overwrites any prior program stored at
that address.
BLOAD M can also load machine code from another Sharp PC-G850 into
memory via the serial (11-pin) interface.
BSAVE M must be entered simultaneously on the second Sharp.
Note: This transmission uses an internal protocol and is therefore
not suitable for exchanging data between the Sharp PC-
G850 and a PC. Likewise, the parameters for the serial
interface in TEXT mode under SIO are ignored.
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180
BLOAD?
Format:
BLOAD?
Abbr:
BLO. ?
See also:
BLOAD
Description: compares a BASIC program from cassette with the BASIC program in
memory. If "filename" is specified, the computer will search the tape for a
program with the label "filename" then compare the program with the one
in memory. If "filename" is not found, the computer continues to search
even if the end of the tape is reached. Press .BREAK. to stop searching. If the
program on cassette does not match the one in memory, an error message is
displayed.
BLOAD? can also be used to compares the program in memory with a
program from another Sharp PC-G850 with the program through the serial
(11-pin) interface.
Note: This transmission uses an internal protocol and is therefore
not suitable for exchanging data between the Sharp PC-
G850 and a PC. Likewise, the parameters for the serial
interface in TEXT mode under SIO are ignored.
BSAVE
Format:
BSAVE ["filename"]
Abbr:
BS.
See also:
BLOAD
Description: saves a BASIC program to the cassette tape. If "filename" is specified, the
program is saved to tape with and assigned the name "filename".
BSAVE can also send a BASIC program to another Sharp PC-G850 via the
serial (11-pin) interface.
The BLOAD command must be entered simultaneously on the second Sharp.
Note: This transmission uses an internal protocol and is therefore
not suitable for exchanging data between the Sharp PC-
G850 and a PC. Likewise, the parameters for the serial
interface in TEXT mode under SIO are ignored.
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181
BSAVE M
Format:
BSAVE M [start-address,end-address[,start-
address2]]
Abbr:
BS. M
See also:
BLOAD M
Description: saves a machine code program from the computer to a cassette. The program
starting at start-address and ending at end-address. Is sent to the cassette.
BSAVE M can also send machine code to a second Sharp PC-G850 via the
serial (11-pin) interface.
The BLOAD M command must be entered simultaneously on the second
Sharp.
Transfer starts at address start-address and ends at address end-address.
Optionally, the destination address (start-address2) can be specified.
Note: This transmission uses an internal protocol and is therefore
not suitable for exchanging data between the Sharp PC-
G850 and a PC. Likewise, the parameters for the serial
interface in TEXT mode under SIO are ignored.
CALL
Format:
CALL [#bank,]address
Abbr:
CA.
See also:
PEEK, POKE
Description: run a machine language program.
With CALL, a machine language program can be started from a BASIC
program or in RUN mode and then returned to the calling mode.
bank
: determines the memory bank from the range 0 … 7, where the
machine language program is stored. If this parameter is not
specified, memory bank 0 is used.
address : identifies the starting address of the program within the valid
memory bank. The addresses must be in the range from 0 … 65535
(&0 … &FFFF). The address must be given and cannot be omitted.
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182
CHR$
Format:
CHR$(expression)
Abbr:
CH.
Description: Returns the character that corresponds the character code of the expression.
The argument can be either a constant, a variable, or an expression. The
argument must be an integer. A hexadecimal number can be specified with
“&H” in front of the character code,(e.g. A$=CHR$(&H5A)).
See Appendix H for a table of character codes.
Example:
10: FOR X = 33 TO 126
20: PAUSE CHR$ (X);
30: NEXT X
40: END
CIRCLE
Format:
CIRCLE(exp1,exp2),expr3[,exp4,expr5,exp6[,S|R|X],
[exp7]]]
Abbr:
CI.
See also:
LINE
Description: Draws a circle.
The command can be used to draw circles, arcs, sectors, and ellipses with a
solid line.
Exp1 and exp2 specify the x and y coordinates, respectively, of the center of
the circle. The origin (0,0) of the underlying coordinate system is located in
the upper left corner of the display. The values must be in the range of -32768
to 32767. To specify points within the screen, use the following ranges:
exp1: 0 … 143
exp2: 0 … 47
Exp3 is used to specify the radius of the circle. The value of exp3 must be
within the range of 1 to 32767.
Exp4 and exp5 are used to specify the starting and ending angle, respectively,
of an arc or sector in degrees. The values must be within the range of -360 to
360. A value of 0 specifies the positive x-axis. Angles increase in a
counterclockwise direction. If a negative value is specified, a radius is drawn
from the origin to the arc. If a positive value is specified, this radius is not
drawn. The default value for exp4 is 0 degrees and that of exp5 is 360 degrees.
Exp6 is used to specify the following ratio:
ratio = 𝑟𝑦 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
𝑟𝑥 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
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If the value of exp6 is 1, a circle is drawn. If the value is other than 1, an
ellipse is drawn. The default value of exp6 is 1.
Options S, R, and X are used to set, reset, or reverse the pixel on the screen.
S: Draws a line while activating the corresponding dots on the screen
(set).
R: Draws a line while deactivating the corresponding dots on the screen
(reset). This option is useful in reverse video or to erase a line on the
screen.
X: Draws a line, activating the corresponding dots if they are inactive, or
deactivating the corresponding dots if they are already active. (reverse)
The default parameter is S.
Exp7 specifies a pattern for filling the circle. The value must be in the range of
0 to 6. Patterns are as follows:
Example:
CIRCLE(71,23),20
Simple circle with radius 20
CIRCLE(71,23),20,,,0.5,,2
flattened circle with vertical fill
CIRCLE(71,23),20,-45,-135
sector from 45° to 135°
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184
CLEAR
Format:
CLEAR
Abbr:
CL.
See also:
DIM, NEW, ERASE
Description: erase variables used in the program and resets all preallocated variables to
zero or null
CLEAR recovers memory space used to store simple numeric variables and
array variables secured using the DIM statement. It can also be used at the
beginning of a program to clear space occupied by variables from previously
run programs if several programs are in memory. Do not use the CLEAR
command in a FOR…NEXT loop. Use the ERASE command to clear specific
array variables.
Example:
5: WAIT 30
Sets wait time for PRINT
10: DIM C(5)
Dimensioned array C(N)
20: FOR N = 1 TO 5
These lines read the
30: READ A: LET C(N) = A
DATA values
40: PRINT C(N)
and
50: NEXT N
prints them
60: DATA 10,20,30,40,50
Provides the data
70: CLEAR
Deletes all variables
80: PRINT A
Verification of deletion
90: END
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185
CLOSE
Format:
CLOSE [#file-number1 [, #file-number2]…]
Abbr:
CLOS.
See also:
END, OPEN
Description: closes all specified files.
CLOSE terminates the ability to access files. Without any parameters, CLOSE
closes all open files. Specifying the parameter file-number will only close the
file associated with that file number. The file number is then released for use
with other files. All files are closed in the following cases:
An end or run command is executed.
The power is turned off.
The computer is changed to an operation mode other than PRO or RUN.
The program is written or read (by LOAD).
Example:
10: OPEN "E: PAYMENT" FOR INPUT AS #1
20: OPEN "E: UPDATE" FOR INPUT AS #2
⋮
400: CLOSE #1, #2
CLS
Format:
CLS
See also:
LOCATE
Description: clears the display.
Clears the display and resets the display start position to (0,0).
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186
CONT
Format:
CONT
Abbr:
C.
Description: continues a program that was temporarily halted.
Enter CONT to continue a program that was stopped under the following
conditions:
Abort by STOP instruction
Abort by actuation of the BREAK key
Interruption by PRINT instruction
Example:
10: PRINT "PROGRAM STOP HERE"
20: STOP
30: PRINT "PROGRAM CONTINUED"
40: PRINT "PROGRAM ENDED
50: END
>RUN
PROGRAM STOP HERE
BREAK IN 20
>CONT
PROGRAM CONTINUED
PROGRAM ENDED
>
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187
DATA
Format:
DATA list-of-values
Abbr:
DA.
See also:
READ, RESTORE
Description: provide values for use by READ.
When assigning initial values to an array, it is convenient to list the values in a
DATA statement and use a READ statement in a FOR…NEXT loop to load the
values in the array. When the first READ is executed, the first value in the first
DATA statement is returned. Successive READs use the succeeding values in
the sequential order in which they appear in the program, regardless of how
many values are listed in each DATA statement or how many DATA statements
are used.
A DATA statement may contain any numeric or string values, separated by
commas. Enclose string values in quotes. Spaces at the beginning or end of
the string should be enclosed in quotes.
DATA statements have no effect if encountered in the course of regular
program execution, so they can be inserted wherever appropriate. Many
programmers include them after the READ that uses them. If desired, the
values in a DATA statement can be read a second time sing the RESTORE
statement.
Example:
10: FOR I = 1 TO 5
20: READ N
30: PRINT N
40: NEXT I
50: END
60: DATA 10,20,30,40,50
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188
DEGREE
Format:
DEGREE
Abbr:
DE.
See also:
RADIAN, GRAD
Description: Set the angle mode to decimal degrees.
In this mode, all angular data is assumed to be in decimal degrees. To mark
this, the symbol DEG appears in the status line. All arguments of the functions
SIN, COS and TAN and the results from ASN, ACS and ATN are in degrees.
The DMS$ and DEG functions can be used to convert angles from decimal
degrees to degrees, minutes, second form and vice versa.
Example:
10: DEGREE
20: PAUSE "ANGLE DATA IN DEGREES"
30: PRINT ASN (0.5), ASN (1)
40: PRINT ACS (0.5), ACN (1)
50: PRINT ATN (0.5), ATN (1)
60: END
DELETE
Format:
DELETE [line number][-][line number]
Abbr:
DEL.
See also:
NEW, RENUM
Description: deletes the specified lines of a BASIC program.
DELETE <line number>
Deletes the specified line if it exists in the program.
DELETE <line number> -
Deletes program lines from the given line to the end of the program.
DELETE <line number> - <line number>
Deletes all lines of a program, starting with the first and ending with the
second line. The second line number must be greater than the first named
number.
DELETE - <line number>
Deletes all lines of a program starting from the beginning of the program
up to and including the specified line.
To completely delete a program, the command NEW should be used.
Example:
DELETE 150
DELETE 50-150
DELETE -35
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DIM
Format:
DIM variable[$](index1[,index2])[*string-length][,]…
Abbr:
D.
See also:
CLEAR, ERASE, READ
Description: reserves space for numeric and string array variables.
DIM is used to reserve space for an array variable. The size of the array is the
number of elements in that array.
The variable name consists of up to 2 alphanumeric characters starting with a
letter. For string variables, “$” is attached to the end of the variable name.
With the exception of the standard variables A to Z and A$ to Z$, which are
equivalent to the two one-dimensional arrays A(1) to A(26) and A$(1) to
A$(26), all array variables are sized with DIM to provide sufficient space in
memory. If an array is not dimensioned, then it cannot be used.
index1 and index2 are called “subscripts” and specify the number of elements
in the nth dimension of the array. An array with one subscript is called a one-
dimensional array, with 2 subscripts, a two-dimensional array. Values of
index1 and index2 are restricted to the range 0…255. The number of elements
in the array is (index1 + 1) * (index2 + 1).
string-length determines the length of the string for the string arrays.
However, if the strings have more characters than specified with string-length,
they will be truncated to the appropriate size and all extra characters will be
lost. If string-length is omitted, strings can contain up to 16 characters by
default. The maximum string length is 255 characters.
Once an array has been dimensioned, it cannot be resized unless the computer
is reset or a CLEAR, NEW, RUN, or ERASE command is performed. A running
program aborts with the display of an ERROR code when it either encounters
an array not declared with DIM or it tries to re-dimension a previously sized
array. Indexes that exceed the maximum values set with index1 or index2 also
lead to a program termination. Negative indices are illegal.
Example:
10: DIM C(13)
20: DIM F$(10)
30: DIM H(4,6)
40: DIM G$(7,5) *25
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END
Format:
END
Abbr:
E.
See also:
STOP
Description: Signals the end of a program.
The program will be terminated when the END statement is executed.
Statements after the END statement in the same line cannot be executed. All
opened files are closed.
If the END statement is missing, the program ends with execution of the last
program line.
Example:
10: GOSUB 50
20: PRINT "AFTER REPEAT ENDS THE"
30: PRINT "MAIN PROGRAM WITH LINE 40"
40: END
50: PRINT "THIS IS THE SUB-PROGRAM"
60: RETURN
>RUN
THIS IS THE SUB-PROGRAM
AFTER REPEAT ENDS THE MAIN PROGRAM WITH LINE 40
EOF
Format:
EOF (file-number)
Abbr:
EO.
Description: determines is the end of a sequential file is reached.
EOF returns a value that indicates whether all the data in a sequential file
specified by file-number has been read.
If all data has been read, EOF returns -1 (true) as its value. If not, EOF returns
0 (false). An error occurs if a file with the specified file-number has not been
opened for input.
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ERASE
Format:
ERASE variable1|array1[, variable2|array2]…
Abbr:
ER.
See also:
CLEAR
Description: erases specified variables and arrays
ERASE deletes specified simple variables and string variables. Only numeric
variables and string variables that are not standard variables (A to Z or @(1)
to @(26) and A$ to Z$ or @$(1) to @$(26)) are valid arguments for ERASE.
The ERASE statement cannot delete individual elements of an array. The
whole array is cleared and its memory area is freed. Arrays are specified with
empty parenthesis (). To resize an array, first ERASE it then re-define it with a
DIM statement.
Example:
10: ERASE AB, Z$()
FILES
Format:
FILES
Abbr:
FI.
See also:
LFILES
Description: returns a list of the files on the RAM disk (Disk E)
FILES displays the filename, filename extension, and file length on the RAM
disk. File length is measured in bytes. The filename extensions are:
.BAS
: BASIC programs
.TXT
: assembler, C, CASL programs
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FOR … NEXT
Format:
FOR variable=expression1 TO expression2 [STEP
expression3]
⋮
NEXT variable
Abbr:
F. N. STE.
Description: repeats a series of operations a specified number of times.
FOR and NEXT are used in pairs to enclose a group of statements that are to be
repeated. The first time this group of statements is executed the loop variable
(the variable named immediately following FOR) is assigned its initial value
(expression1).
When execution reaches the NEXT statement, the loop variable is increased by
the STEP value (expression3) and then this value is tested against the final
value (expression2). If the value of the loop variable is less than or equal to
the final value, the enclosed group of statements is executed again, starting
with the statement following FOR. If expression3 is omitted, the increment
becomes 1. If the value of the loop variable is greater than the final value,
execution continues with the statement that immediately follows NEXT.
Because the comparison is made at the end, the statements within a
FOR…NEXT pair are always executed at least once.
When the increment is zero, FOR…NEXT will continue in an infinite loop.
The loop variable may be used within the group of statements, for example as
an index to an array, but care should be taken in changing the value of the
loop variable.
Write programs so that the program flow does not jump out of a FOR…NEXT
loop before the counter reaches the final value. To exit a loop before it has
been repeated the specified number of times, set the loop variable higher than
the final value
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The group of statements enclosed by a FOR…NEXT pair can include another
pair of FOR…NEXT statements that use a different loop variable as long as the
enclosed pair is completely enclosed; i.e., if a FOR statement is included in the
group, the matching NEXT must also be included. FOR…NEXT pairs may be
nested up to six levels deep. Illegally jumping out of an inner loop will
generate an ERROR.
Do not use CLEAR, DIM, or ERASE within a FOR…NEXT loop.
Example:
10: FOR I = 1 TO 20
50: NEXT I
230: FOR K = 2 TO 17 STEP 2
290: NEXT K
10: FOR M = 1 TO 10
20: FOR N = 5 TO 20 STEP 5
80: NEXT N
90: NEXT M
10: A = 2: B = 5
20: FOR I = A TO B STEP 0.2
30: NEXT A
FRE
Format:
FRE
Abbr:
FR.
Description: Returns the free space available in the program data area in bytes.
FRE indicates the byte count of the free space (not occupied by program,
array variables, or simple variables) in the program and data area of memory.
As a function, FRE can pass its value to a variable.
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GCURSOR
Format:
GCURSOR(expression1, expression2)
Abbr:
GC.
See also:
GPRINT
Description: specifies starting point on the display.
GCURSOR specifies the starting point on the display for the dot pattern to be
displayed by the GPRINT command.
The display consists of 144 columns and 48 rows of dots, which can be
addressed by column numbers 0..143 and row numbers 0…47. Any dot on the
screen can therefore be addressed as a starting point by specifying the column
number with expression1 and row number with expression2.
The values of expression1 and expression2 may range from -32768 to 32767.
If the value of expression1 is outside 0…143 or that of expression2 is outside
0…47, the display starting point will become a virtual point outside of the
screen boundaries.
Horizontal position (specified by expression1)
0...........................................143
0
⋮
47
Vertical position (specified by expression2)
Example:
5: CLS
10: GCURSOR(50,20)
20: GPRINT”1824458F452418”
Display starting point (50,20)
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GOSUB … RETURN
Format:
GOSUB line-number|"label"|*label
⋮
RETURN
Abbr:
GOS. RE.
See also:
GOTO, ON…GOTO, ON…GOSUB
Description: diverts program execution to a subroutine.
A subroutine is a group of consecutive program lines that are executed several
times in the course of the program. The group of statements is included in the
program at some location that is not reached in the normal sequence of
execution. A common location is following the END statement that marks the
end of the main program.
At each location in the main body of the program where a subroutine is to be
executed, include a GOSUB statement with a line number or a label that
indicates the starting point of the subroutine. The last line of each subroutine
must be a RETURN.
When GOSUB is executed, the computer transfers control to the indicated line
number or label and processes the statements until a RETURN is reached.
Control is then transferred back to the statement following the GOSUB.
Subroutines may be “nested” with a maximum depth of 10 levels deep. If the
depth is greater than this limit, the program is aborted and an ERROR code 50
is shown on the display.
Since there is an ON…GOSUB structure for choosing different subroutines at
given locations in the program, the expression in a GOSUB statement usually
consists of just the desired line number or label.
Example:
10: GOSUB 90
20: GOSUB "A"
⋮
90: "A" PRINT "SUB-PROGRAM STARTED"
95: RETURN
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GOTO
Format:
GOTO line-number|"label"|*label
Abbr:
G.
See also:
GOSUB, ON…GOTO, CONT
Description: Transfers program control to the specified line-number or label
GOTO performs a non-conditional jump to the specified line number or label.
The jump automatically executed and does not depend on any condition
(unless one uses the instruction IF…THEN…GOTO).
If a line containing the commands DATA or REM is specified as the jump
destination, program execution continues at the next line (or executable
instruction).
In RUN mode, GOTO can also be used to start a program from a specific line.
Unlike the RUN command, no variables are deleted.
GOTO can also be used to resume a program that has been interrupted with the
.BREAK. key.
Example:
10: INPUT A$
20: IF A$ = "Y" THEN 40
30: PRINT "NO": GOTO 50
40: PRINT "YES"
50: END
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197
GPRINT
Format:
GPRINT string
GPRINT expression [;expression]…
GPRINT
Abbr:
GP.
See also:
GCURSOR
Description: displays the specified dot pattern.
The GPRINT command displays the specified dot pattern. Each column of a
bit image is represented by 8 vertical dots. The height of a column of pixels is
the height of a character in TEXT mode.
If GPRINT is followed by a string, each 8 dot column is divided into a lower
and upper group of 4 dots. Each group of dots is then represented by a
hexadecimal number. Each pair of hexadecimal numbers represents one 8 dot
column, with the first number representing the lower 4 dots and the second
number representing the upper 4 dots. The string is enclosed by “ ”.
GPRINT “XXXXXXXX”
Hex
number
Dot
pattern
Hex
number
Dot
pattern
Hex
number
Dot
pattern
Hex
number
Dot
pattern
0
4
8
C
1
5
9
D
2
6
A
E
3
7
B
F
The vertical 8-dot pattern can be specified using a hexadecimal or decimal
value. A “weight” is assigned to each dot as shown below.
1
Weight of each dot
(hexadecimal)
1
Weight of each dot
(decimal)
2
2
3
4
4
8
10
16
20
32
40
64
80
128
Specify the dot pattern with a numeric value equal to the sum of the “weights”
of the dots to be displayed. The value is a number between 0 and 255.
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198
The following instructions are identical in their effect:
GPRINT 16;40;18;253;18;40;16
(decimal)
GPRINT &10;&28;&12;&FD;&12;&28;&10
(hexadecimal)
GPRINT “102812FD122810”
(hex string)
If no dot pattern is specified, the graphic cursor is moved down one line
without affecting the contents of the display. If a GPRINT statement ends
with a semicolon (;), the next GPRINT command takes effect from the next
cursor position (the “;” concatenates the commands).
Example:
10: AA$ = “102812FD122810”
20: GCURSOR(30,20)
30: GPRINT AA$;AA$;AA$
The 8 dots above and including the display starting point (30,20)
specified by the GCURSOR command are used to display the first
value given in GPRINT
GRAD
Format:
GRAD
Abbr:
GR.
See also:
DEGREE, RADIAN
Description: Sets the angle mode to gradian.
In this mode, all angular data is assumed to be in gradians. To mark this, the
symbol GRAD appears in the status line. All arguments of the functions SIN,
COS and TAN and the results from ASN, ACS and ATN are in gradians.
Gradian form represents the angular measurement in terms of percent
gradient, i.e. a 45° angle is a 50 percent gradient.
Example:
10: GRAD
20: PAUSE "ANGLE IN GRADIANS"
30: PRINT ASN (0.5), ASN (1.0)
40: PRINT ACS (0.5), ACS (1.0)
50: PRINT ATN (0.5), ATN ( 1.O)
60: END
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199
HEX$
Format:
HEX$(number)
Abbr:
H.
See also:
VAL
Description: converts a decimal number into its hexadecimal character string equivalent.
The value of the expression must be an integer in the range of -9999999999 to
9999999999. The resulting hexadecimal character string will be up to 10
digits long. HEX$(64) returns the string: "&40"
Example:
10: PRINT "CHANGE: DECIMAL TO HEX"
20: INPUT "DECIMAL NUMBER ="; X
30: IF X> 65535 THEN 100
40: IF X <0 THEN 110
50: PRINT "HEXADECIMAL VALUE ="; HEX$(X): PRINT
60: INPUT "ONE NUMBER (Y/N)"; A$
70: IF A$ = "Y" THEN 20
80: IF A$ = "N" THEN END
90: GOTO 60
100: PRINT "ERROR: MAXIMUM = 65535!": GOTO 20
110: PRINT "ERROR: MINIMUM = 0!": GOTO 20
120: END
IF … THEN … ELSE
Format:
IF condition THEN line-number|*label|statement
[ELSE line-number|*label|statement[:statement]…]
Abbr:
IF T. EL.
Description: controls program flow, depending on whether a condition is fulfilled or not.
The decision depends on the condition to be checked between the words
IF…THEN. If this is true, the line specified after THEN, which is either a line-
number, *label, or statement, is executed. Otherwise, the next line will be
executed.
If the instruction IF…THEN contains an ELSE statement, then if the condition
is false, the program does not continue with the next line, but with the line or
instructions specified after ELSE.
If ELSE is not followed by a line number or label, all statements (including
those separated by a colon) are executed as long as they are on the same line.
The instructions IF…THEN…ELSE can also be nested within a program line.
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200
The condition to be tested between the IF…THEN is formed by a logical
expression which, however complex, can always be built from the following
forms:
X = Y
: X is equal to Y
X <> Y : X is not equal to Y
X < Y
: X is less than Y
X > Y
: X is greater than Y
X <= Y : X is less than or equal to Y
X >= Y : X is greater than or equal to Y
X AND Y : Logical AND
X OR Y : Logical OR
NOT y
: Logical NOT
Examples of logical expressions:
X = 1
Condition is fulfilled if X has the value 1.
(P = 2 AND Q = 4) OR P = 1
The condition is fulfilled if either P has the value 1 (independent of
Q) or if P = 2 and Q = 4.
Example:
10: INPUT "SHOULD I SQUEEK", A$
20: IF A$ = "N" THEN 60
30: IF A$ = "Y" THEN BEEP 3: GOTO 10
40: PRINT "Y OR N ENTER!"
50: GOTO 10
60: PRINT "SORRY!"
70: END
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201
IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
Format:
IF condition THEN
statement1
[ELSE
statement2]
ENDIF
Abbr:
IF T. EL. ENDI.
Definition:
conditionally executes statements at runtime.
When the condition of the IF statement is true, the statement after THEN is
executed; if it is false, the statement following ELSE is executed. Program
execution continues at the statement after ENDIF.
IF, ELSE, ENDIF must always follow directly after a line number, not a label
An instruction, expression, or remark should not follow the same line after
THEN (or ELSE). Otherwise, the statement is treated like a normal
IF…THEN…ELSE statement.
The use and interpretation of the conditional expressions conforms to the
IF…THEN…ELSE statement.
Example:
10: WAIT:CLS
20: INPUT “COORDINATE”;A
30: LOCATE 14,0:INPUT “COORDINATE”;B
40: IF (4*A)<B OR (2*A)>B THEN
50: PRINT "IMPOSSIBLE"
60: ELSE
70: C=B-INT(B/2)*2
80: IF C=1 THEN
90: PRINT "ODD"
100: ELSE
110: X=(2*A)-B/2:Y=(B/2)-A
120: WAIT 0:PRINT “ROW”;X
130: WAIT:PRINT “COLUMN”;Y
140: ENDIF
150: ENDIF
160: GOTO 10
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202
INKEY$
Format:
INKEY$
Abbr:
INK.
See also:
INPUT
Description: Gives the specified variable the value of the key pressed while the INKEY$
function is executed.
INKEY$ is used to respond to the pressing of individual keys without waiting
for the
key to end the entry. The INKEY$ command reads the .SHIFT. or
.CAPS. key if it is pressed. Thus it is unable to read the function or symbol
key that is pressed following either of these keys. See the following table for
the list of applicable keys and the characters that are returned. If no key is
pressed, a value of 0 is returned.
Example:
300: A$ = INKEY$
310: IF A$ = "" THEN 300
320: IF A$ = "*" THEN 500
330: GOTO 300
⋮
500: PRINT "HI"
0
16
32
48
64
80
…
128
144
…
240
Hi
0
1
2
3
4
5
8
9
F
Lo
0
0
2ND F
SPACE
0
P
1
1
1
A
Q
ln
2
2
CLS
2
B
R
log
3
3
3
C
S
4
4
4
D
T
5
5
CAPS
5
E
U
sin
6
6
6
F
V
cos
7
7
ANS
BS
7
G
W
1/x
tan
8
8
BASIC
R-CM
(
8
H
X
x2
9
9
TEXT
M+
)
9
I
Y
10
A
TAB
*
J
Z
11
B
INS
+
;
K
DEG
12
C
CONST
‘
L
FE
√
13
D
—
=
M
nPr
14
E
.
N
MDF
15
F
/
O
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203
INPUT
Format:
INPUT variable [, variable]…
INPUT "prompt", variable [[,"prompt"], variable]]…
INPUT "prompt"; variable [[,"prompt"]; variable]]…
Abbr:
I.
Description: allows keyboard entry of values.
Executing an INPUT instruction stops the program and displays prompt on
the display, if specified in the instruction. The display of the question mark
can be suppressed by adding a semicolon (;) after prompt. If prompt is
missing, a question mark will appear.
During this pause in the program, data can be entered via the keyboard. The
received data is assigned sequentially to the variable listed in the parameter.
The variables in the list separated by commas. Entry is completed by pressing
the
key.
In all the cases just described, the cursor is positioned after the question mark
or prompt. However, if prompt is followed by a comma, the cursor will move
to the first column and erase prompt.
Example:
10: INPUT A
20: INPUT "A ="; A
30: INPUT "A =", A
40: INPUT "X =?"; X, "Y =?"; Y
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204
INPUT#
Format:
INPUT# file-number, variable [, variable]…
Abbr:
I.#
See also:
DIM, INPUT, OPEN, PRINT
Description: reads data from a file
INPUT# reads data from a file that resides on the RAM disk or from the serial
interface.
File number is the number of the file that was assigned to it when it was
opened by the OPEN command. An attempt to read an unopened file ends with
an ERROR. For reading from the serial interface, the file number is 1. For
RAM disk files, either 2 or 3.
The list of variables determines the names of the variables into which the data
records are to be read. Variables can consist of simple variables, standard
variables or arrays. The data format must match the order and type of the
variable list. String variables must be dimensioned to the appropriate length.
Arrays must have a pseudo-index (*) in the variable list, for example: A(*).
Comma, space, LF, CF, or CR + LF are used as delimiters when reading
data into numeric variables. If the data file starts with a double quotes ("), all
data up to the next comma is assigned to one variable.
Example:
10: A$ = "AB" + CHR$(34)+ "CDE" + CHR$(34)
20: B$ = CHR$(34) + "CD, EF" + CHR$(34)
30: PRINT A$
40: PRINT B$
50: OPEN "E:ABC.DAT" FOR OUTPUT AS #2
60: PRINT #2, A$; ","; B$
70: CLOSE #2
80: OPEN "E:ABC.DAT" FOR INPUT AS #2
90: INPUT #2, C$, D$
100: PRINT C$
110: PRINT D$
120: CLOSE: END
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205
KILL
Format:
KILL "filename[.BAS]"
Abbr:
K.
See also:
SAVE
Description: deletes a BASIC program
KILL deletes basic programs stored on the RAM disk. filename determines
which file is to be deleted. The extension .BAS is optional. It is not possible
to specify the name of the RAM disk (E:) or other devices. The use of
"wildcards" (* or ?) is not allowed.
All other file types created or deleted via the TEXT monitor.
Example:
KILL "TEST"
This instruction deletes the basic program TEST from the
RAM disk
LCOPY
Format:
LCOPY startline, endline, targetline
Abbr:
LC.
Description: copy lines.
LCOPY copies lines of BASIC programs from startline to endline to
targetline. Line numbers for jumps in BASIC commands are not adjusted
(unlike RENUM).
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206
LEFT$
Format:
LEFT$(string, number)
Abbr:
LEF.
See also:
LEN, MID$, RIGHT$
Description: returns the specified number of characters starting from the left end of the
string.
LEFT$ returns a substring of length <number> characters of the given string
starting from the left.
The number of characters of the substring must be in the range of 0 to 255. A
fractional number will be rounded to the nearest whole number. If the number
is greater than the number of characters of the given string, the entire string is
returned.
Example:
10: X$ = "SHARP"
20: FOR N = 1 TO 6
30: TS$ = LEFT$(X$,N)
40: PRINT TS $
60: NEXT N
>RUN
S
SH
SHA
SHAR
SHARP
SHARP
SHARP
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207
LEN
Format:
LEN(string)
See also:
LEFT$, MID$, RIGHT$
Description: number of characters in a string
LEN determines the length of a string, i.e. the number of characters contained
in it. This number also takes into account spaces and non-printable characters,
such as control codes, e.g. a "carriage return" (symbol: <CR>, code: &OD).
Example:
10: INPUT "ENTER A WORD:", W$
20: N = LEN(W$)
30: PRINT "THE WORD HAS ";N;" LETTERS"
40: END
Notice what happens when W$ has more than
16 characters.
10: A$ = "ONE"; B$ = "TWO"; C$ = "THREE"
20: S$ = A$ + CHR$(13) + B$ + CHR$(7) + C$
30: PAUSE S$
40: PRINT "NUMBER OF CHARACTERS ="; LEN(S$)
50: END
>RUN
ONE TWO THREE
NUMBER OF CHARACTERS = 14
>
LET
Format:
[LET] var1e=exp1[, var2=exp2]…
Abbr:
LE.
Description: variable assignment
Assigns values to variables. Numeric variables can only be assigned numeric
values and string variables can only be strings. The command word LET is
optional and can be omitted. This makes the following two assignments
identical: LET A = 5 or simply: A = 5
LET must be used if variable assignment occurs immediately after a THEN or
ELSE.
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208
LFILES
Format:
LFILES
Abbr:
LF.
See also:
FILES
Description: prints a list of files
LFILES prints a list of the files on the RAM disk (Disk E:), i.e. a table of
contents, on the connected printer. Each file is displayed with the following
information:
Filename
Extension (for example: .BAS for BASIC programs, .TXT
for assembler, C, CASL)
LINE
Format:
LINE [(exp1, exp2)]-(exp3, exp4)[,S|R|X][, exp5]
[,B|BF]
Abbr:
LIN.
See also:
CIRCLE
Description: draw a line or a rectangle.
LINE draws a line or rectangle from the first point with the coordinates (exp1,
exp2) to the second point with the coordinates (exp3, exp4) on the display.
The origin (0,0) of the underlying coordinate system is located in the upper
left corner of the display.
If the first point is omitted, the current position of the graphic cursor is
assumed.
The values of expressions1-4 should be between -32768 to 32767. To specify
points within the screen, use the following ranges:
exp1 and 3: 0 to 143
exp2 and 4: 0 to 47
Options S, R, and X are used to set, reset, or reverse the pixel on the screen.
S: Draws a line while activating the corresponding dots on the screen
(set).
R: Draws a line while deactivating the corresponding dots on the screen
(reset). This option is useful in reverse video or to erase a line on the
screen.
X: Draws a line, activating the corresponding dots if they are inactive, or
deactivating the corresponding dots if they are already active. (reverse)
The default parameter is S.
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209
Exp5 is used to specify a line pattern. The value of exp5 ranges from 0 to
65535. (&0- &FFFF). This number represents a bit pattern. For example, if
the value of expn5 is 26214 (&H6666), the following line pattern is drawn:
16 dots
The binary representation of 26214 (&H6666) is: 0110011001100110. A 1
represents an active dot while a 0 represents an inactive dot. A solid line is
drawn if exp5 is omitted.
Options B and BF are used to draw a rectangle whose opposite corners are
specified by (exp1, exp2) and (exp3, exp4).
B: draws an empty rectangle
BF: draws a filled rectangle.
Example:
10: CLS
20: FOR N = 10 TO 100 STEP 30
30: M = N + 20
40: LINE (N, 10) - (M, 20),BF
50: NEXT N
60: END
10: LINE -(124,31)
10: LINE (24,0)-(124,47),&HF18F,B
10: LINE (34,3)-(114,44),X,BF
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LIST
Format:
LIST [line-number|"label"]
Abbr:
L.
See also:
LLIST
Description: output lines of a BASIC program on the display.
If line-number or "label" is not specified, LIST starts at the first line of the
program and displays the following program lines until the bottom of the
display. The cursor is positioned invisibly behind the first line number.
Additional lines can be displayed by moving the cursor downwards with the
..M.. key and the lines at the top of the display are scrolled off.
If line-number or "label" is specified, the list starts with that line. If there is no
line with this line number, the list is started with the line having the next
highest number. If line-number is greater than the highest line number in the
program or if the specified label is not found, an ERROR code is displayed.
A program protected using PASS cannot be listed because access to the PRO
mode is blocked in this case. The LIST command is only accepted in PRO
mode.
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LLIST
Format:
LLIST [line-number1|"label1"][-[line-number2|
"label2"]]
Abbr:
LL.
See also:
LIST
Description: outputs lines of a BASIC program.
If line-number or “label” is specified, LIST starts the list with the first line of
the program. Although LLIST is used in much the same way as the LIST
command, it is more flexible.
LLIST
lists the complete program, i.e. all lines of the program.
LLIST line-number
lists only the desired line
LLIST line-number1|"labe11"-line-number2|"label2"
lists from line-number1 or label1 to line-number2 / label2.
LLIST line-number|"label"-
lists from the specified line-number or label and continues until the
end of the program.
LLIST -line-number|"label"
lists from the first line of the program to the specified line number /
label.
Example:
LLIST
LLIST 10-100
LLIST 10-"A"
LLIST "A" -
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LNINPUT#
Format:
LNINPUT# file-number, string-variable1[, string-
variable2]…
Abbr:
LNI.#
Description: reads data from a file
This command reads data from a file on the RAM disk or the serial interface.
File-number is the number assigned to the file when opened with the OPEN
command. An attempt to read an unopened file will display an ERROR code.
File number 1 is used for reading from the serial interface. For RAM disk
files, use either 2 or 3.
The list of string variables are the names of the variables into which the data
are to be stored. Variables may consist of simple string variables, standard
variables or arrays. The variables should be dimensioned to appropriate
length. Arrays must have the pseudo-index (*) in the variable list, for
example: A(*). A CR+LF is used as a delimiter when reading data.
Example:
10: LNINPUT #2, AA$
10: LNINPUT #2, AA$, AB$, AC$
10: DIM AA$(4)*16
20: LNINPUT #2, AA$(*)
Reads 5 records
LOAD
Format:
LOAD "filename[.BAS]"
Abbr:
LO.
See also:
RUN, SAVE
Description: load a file
Loads a file on the RAM disk into internal memory. filename determines
which BASIC file to load. The extension .BAS is optional. Additionally, the
name of the RAM disk (E:) or other device is also optional.
All open files are closed by LOAD.
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LOCATE
Format:
LOCATE [expression1[, expression2]]
Abbr:
LOC.
Description: specifies the display start position in column units.
Specifies the start position of the display in units of character position for the
contents displayed by the PRINT command. The display position is defined as
follows:
Horizontal position (specified by expression1)
0 1 2 3 4 ..................................26
0
1
2
3
4
5
Vertical position (specified by expression2)
A position on the display is specified by its horizontal and vertical position.
Expression1 specifies the horizontal position while expression2 specifies the
vertical position. The range of expression1 is 0 to 39. The range of
expression2 is 0 to 5. An error occurs if the expressions are not in the
specified range.
If expression1 or expression2 is omitted, the current position is assumed.
Example:
10: LOCATE 5
20: PRINT "TEXT1";
30: LOCATE, 4
40: PRINT "TEXT2";
50: LOCATE 0.3
60: PRINT "TEXT3"
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LOF
Format:
LOF(file-number)
Description: returns the size of the specified file.
The LOF command returns the size of a file with the specified file-number.
The size of the file is displayed in bytes. The file must be opened via the
OPEN command and assigned a file number. If the specified file is not open,
an ERROR will occur.
This file number is used to address the file whose size is to be determined.
Example:
10: OPEN "E: FILE1.TXT" FOR INPUT AS #2
20: N = LOF(2)
30: PRINT "FILE1 CONSISTS OF"; N; "BYTES"
40: CLOSE #2
50: END
LPRINT
Format:
LPRINT [USING "format"] [expression1|string1[,|;
[expression2|string2]…][;]
Abbr:
LP.
See also:
PRINT
Description: sends output to the printer.
The commands LPRINT and LPRINT USING are used in the same way as
PRINT and PRINT USING.
LPRINT without parameters feeds the paper by one line.
LPRINT with parameters prints the values of the listed expressions one after
the other. These expressions can be either numeric or a string. If a semicolon
is used to separate the expressions, their values print immediately after each
other. If a comma is used, the value of the next expression is printed at the
next column (For the CE-126P, the column starts at position 13 or 0)
If the list of expressions ends with a semicolon, the following LPRINT
continues at the next position. If there is no semicolon at the end of the
statement, a line feed is sent.
LPRINT USING behaves identically to PRINT USING.
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MID$
Format:
MID$(string,expression1,expression2)
Abbr:
MI.
See also:
LEN, LEFT$, RIGHT$
Description: returns a string of characters from inside another string
MID$ returns a string of expression2 characters from inside string starting
from the expression1 character in the string.
expression1
value in the range 1...255. Values outside of the range
results in an ERROR. If the value is greater than the
number of characters contained in the string, a NULL
string is generated.
expression2
value in the range 0...255. determines how many
characters from the given string are to be copied. Values
with decimal places are rounded down to the nearest
whole number.
Example:
10: Z$ = "ABCDEFG"
20: Y$ = MID$(Z$,3,4)
30: PRINT Y$
>RUN
CDEF
>
MON
Format:
MON
Abbr:
MO.
Description: Switches to the machine language monitor.
NEW
Format:
NEW
See also:
DELETE, CLEAR
Description: Clears existing programs and data
The NEW command clears all programs and data that are in memory. Password
protected programs cannot be deleted.
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ON…GOSUB
Format:
ON expression GOSUB line-number1|"label1", line-
number2|"label2",…
Abbr:
O. G., O. GOS.
See also:
GOSUB, GOTO, ON…GOTO
Description: Execute on of a set of subroutines depending on the value of a control
expression.
When ON…GOSUB is executed, the expression between ON and GOSUB is
evaluated and reduced to an integer. If the value of the integer is 1, control is
transferred to line-number1 / “label1” in the list, as in a normal GOSUB. If the
expression evaluates to 2, then control is transferred to line-number2 /
“label2”, and so forth.
If the expression is zero, negative, or larger than the number of line numbers
provided in the list, no subroutine is executed and execution proceeds with the
next statement or line of the program.
Use commas (,) to separate line numbers or labels in the list.
Example:
10: INPUT "NUMBER (1-3) ="; N
20: ON N GOSUB 100,200,300
⋮
90: END
100: REM FIRST SUBPROGRAM
⋮
190: RETURN
200: REM SECOND SUBPROGRAM
⋮
290: RETURN
300: REM THIRD SUB-PROGRAM
⋮
380: RETURN
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ON…GOTO
Format:
ON expression GOTO line-number1|"label1",line-
number2|"label2",…
See also:
GOSUB, GOTO, ON…GOSUB
Description: Transfer control/executes one of a set of subroutines, depending on the value
of a control expression.
When ON…GOTO is executed, the expression between ON and GOTO is
evaluated and reduced to an integer. If the value of the integer is 1, control is
transferred to line-number1 / “label1” in the list. If the expression evaluates to
2, then control is transferred to line-numbe2 / “label2”, and so forth.
If the expression is zero, negative, or larger than the number of line numbers
provided in the list, execution proceeds with the next statement or line of the
program.
Use commas (,) to separate line numbers or labels in the list.
Example:
10: INPUT A
20: ON A GOTO 100,200,300
30: GOTO 900
100: PRINT “FIRST”
110: GOTO 900
200: PRINT “SECOND”
210: GOTO 900
300: PRINT “THIRD”
310: GOTO 900
900: END
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OPEN
Format:
OPEN "E:file" FOR INPUT|OUTPUT|APPEND AS #file-
number>
OPEN "COM:|COM1:|LPRT:|PIO:"
Abbr:
OP.
See also:
CLOSE, END
Description: opens a file or I/O on a device for reading, writing, or appending.
OPEN "E:file" opens a file on the RAM disk. The OPEN command must
be accompanied by an appropriate attribute (INPUT, OUTPUT or APPEND).
The file can then be accessed for that purpose. Before a file can be opened for
another purpose, it must first be closed with CLOSE.
file
: indicates the complete file name, including the extension.
INPUT
: allows sequential reading data records from the file using
INPUT# or LNINPUT#.
OUTPUT
: allows data to be sequentially written to the file with
PRINT#. In this mode, any previously written information in
the file is lost.
APPEND
: allows data to be added to the end of the file with PRINT#.
file-number : may only have the value 2 or 3. All other input and output
commands, such as PRINT# or LNINPUT#, uses this
number. This also means a maximum of 2 RAM disk files
may be opened at the same time.
Files cannot be created with OPEN. Files must first be created in TEXT mode
under RFILES. Additional file administration must be performed in TEXT
mode.
Example:
10: OPEN "E:DATA.TXT" FOR OUTPUT AS #2
20: FOR J = l TO 5
30: PRINT #2, J
40: NEXT J
50: CLOSE #2
60: OPEN "E:DATA" FOR INPUT AS #2
70: IF EOF(2) THEN 110
80: INPUT# 2, J
90: PRINT J
100: GOTO 70
110: REM FILE END REACHED
120: CLOSE #2
130: END
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219
PAINT
Format:
PAINT (expression1, expression2), expression3
Abbr:
PAI.
See also:
CIRCLE, GCURSOR, LINE
Description: fills an area with a pattern.
PAINT fills an area surrounding the coordinates expression1, expression2
with the pattern specified by expression3. The values must be in the range of -
32768 to 32767. To specify points within the screen, use the following ranges:
expression1 : 0 (left) … 143 (right)
expression2 : 0 (top) … 47 (bottom)
If an off screen point is specified, the PAINT command is ignored. The fill
pattern is specified by expression3. Legal values for expression3 are:
Example:
>PAINT (71,23),3
PASS
Format:
PASS "character-string"
Abbr:
PA.
Description: sets and cancels passwords.
The PASS command protects a program against unauthorized access by
assigning a password. Character-string consists of up to eight arbitrarily
combined alphanumeric characters, which are enclosed in quotation marks
like a string constant. The quotation mark (") cannot be used within the
password.
Once a password has been set, the computer can no longer be put into PRO
mode. The following commands remain as ineffective as well as the
and
buttons:
AUTO
RENUM
LCOPY
LIST
LLIST
BSAVE
SAVE
BLOAD
LOAD
NEW
DELETE
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220
The program cannot be listed, saved or changed. Similarly, overwriting by
loading another program is prevented. If there are several programs in
memory, protection applies to all programs. The only way to remove the
protection is to re-enter the PASS command with the correct password.
The PASS command is only applicable if there is actually a program in
program memory.
Example:
>PASS "SECRET"
This command protects all programs stored in
memory with the password "SECRET".
PEEK
Format:
PEEK(address)
Abbr:
PE.
See also:
POKE, CALL
Description: returns the contents of the specified memory address.
address is in the range of &0…&FFFF (0…65535).
Example:
A = PEEK(100)
A = PEEK(&H4001)
POINT
Format:
POINT(expression1, expression2)
Abbr:
POI.
Description: returns status of the specified point.
The arguments expression1 and expression2 can be any numeric expression.
The values of expression1 and expression2 determine the display point. If the
point is set, then POINT returns a value of 1, in all other cases the value is 0.
If the specified point is outside the display boundary, the command returns 0.
The values of expression1 and expression2 may be within the range of -32768
... 32767. A point within the display boundaries is addressed only with the
value of expression1 is from 0…143 and the value of expression2 is from
0…47.
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221
POKE
Format:
POKE address, byte[, byte]…
Abbr:
POK.
See also:
CALL, PEEK
Description: write value into memory
POKE provides direct access to the memory of the computer. It is thus
possible to write data in the form of bytes to the specified RAM addresses.
address : determines in which memory address the (first) byte is to be
written. The address must be in the range of 0…65535 or
&0…&FFFF.
byte
: specifies an 8-bit value in the range of 0 to 255 (&0…&FF) to be
written to the memory specified by address.
If several bytes are listed, which must be separated by commas, they will be
written consecutively into consecutive addresses. The parameter address acts
as start address. If the available memory space is insufficient for all listed
bytes, an ERROR code will be displayed.
Example:
POKE &FF00, &13, &B7, &37, &C9
PRESET
Format:
PRESET(expression1, expression2)
Abbr:
PRE.
See also:
PSET, LINE
Description: clears the pixel at the specified coordinates
The arguments expression1 and expression2 can be any numeric expression.
The value of expression1 and expression2 must be in the range from -32768
… 32767. A pixel on the screen is only addressed if the value of expression1
is from 0 (left) – 143 (right) and the value of expression2 is from 0 (top) – to
47 (bottom).
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PRINT
Format:
PRINT [USING "format"] [exp1|string1[,|;
exp2|string2]…][,|;]
Abbr:
P.
See also:
LPRINT, USING
Description: displays information.
PRINT sends the values of the listed expressions one after the other. These
expressions can be either numeric or a string. If a semicolon is used to
separate the expressions, their values are displayed one after each other.
BASIC divides each line of the display into two equal zones of 12 columns. If
a comma is used as the delimiter, the value of the subsequent expression is
displayed at the next zone (column 1 or 13).
Numeric data is displayed right justified, but strings are displayed left-
justified. Single numeric data is displayed in the right zone, single string data
in the left zone.
A PRINT statement without any parameter displays a blank line, which is
equivalent to a printer line feed.
The USING statement allows formatting of printed data. The format is
determined by a format string, which is used as a parameter of the USING
statement. See USING for additional details.
PRINTLPRINT
The computer can switch all PRINT commands to LPRINT. Attach the
printer before executing the following statements:
PRINT = LPRINT
: redirects the PRINT command to the printer.
PRINT = PRINT
: resets PRINT output to the screen.
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223
PRINT#
Format:
PRINT# file-number,variable1[,|;variable2]…[,|;]
Abbr:
P.#
Description: write data to a file or the serial interface.
File-number is the number under which the file was opened using the OPEN
command. Attempting to write something to an unopened file results in an
ERROR code. This value must be 1 (serial), 2, or 3.
If the variables are delimited by semicolons, they are written to the file
without a space. If a comma is used as a delimiter, the data is separated into
zones of 20 characters. If a comma needs to be written to the file, it should be
put in quotation marks.
Data can include both numeric and string variables. In both cases, attention
should be paid to the use of the correct separators. Otherwise, there may be
problems with reading using INPUT#. With array variables, individual
elements can be addressed. The entire array must be specified in the form
A(*).
PSET
Format:
PSET(expression1,expression2)[,X]
Abbr:
PS.
See also:
PRESET, LINE, CIRCLE
Description: sets or clears a point at the specified coordinates.
The arguments expression1 and expression2 can be any numeric expression.
The values of expression1 and expression2 must be in the range from -32768
… 32767. A point on the screen is only addressed if the value of expression1
is from 0 (left) – 143 (right) and the value of expression2 is from 0 (top) – to
47 (bottom).
If the 3rd parameter is not used, the point will be set. If the 3rd parameter is
present, PSET will invert the current state of the pixel. An on pixel will turn
off and vice versa.
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224
RADIAN
Format:
RADIAN
Abbr:
RAD.
See also:
DEGREE, GRAD
Description: sets angular mode radians.
In this mode, all angular data is assumed to be in radians. To mark this, the
symbol RAD appears in the status line. All arguments of the functions SIN,
COS and TAN and the results from ASN, ACS and ATN are in radians. Radian
form represents the angle in terms of the length of the arc with respect to the
radius, i.e., 360° is 2π radians since the circumference of a circle is 2π times
the radius.
Example:
10: RADIAN
20: PAUSE "ANGLES IN RADIANS"
30: PRINT ASN (0.5), ASN (1)
40: PRINT ACS (0.5), ACS (1)
50: PRINT ATN (0.5), ATN (1)
60: END
RUN ANGLE IN RADIANS
5.235987E-01 1.570796327
1.047197551 0
0.463647609 7.853981E-01
>
RANDOMIZE
Format:
RANDOMIZE
Abbr:
RA.
See also:
RND
Description: resets the seed for random number generation.
When random numbers are generated using the RND function, the computer
begins with a predetermined “seed” or starting number. RANDOMIZE resets
this seed to a new randomly determined value.
The starting seed will be the same each time the computer is turned on, so the
sequence of random numbers generated with RND is the same each time,
unless the seed is changed. This is very convenient during the development of
a program because it means the behavior of the program should be the same
each time it is run, even with the RND function. When you want the numbers
to be truly random, the RANDOMIZE statement can be used to make the seed
itself random.
Example:
10: RANDOMIZE
20: X = RND(10)
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225
READ
Format:
READ variable[, variable]…
Abbr:
REA.
See also:
DIM, RESTORE
Description: reads values contained in DATA statements and assigns them to the listed
variables. At least one DATA statement must be present within the program.
Each variable listed as is sequentially assigned to the next element in a DATA
statement. The variables in the parameter list must be of the same type as
constants in the DATA statement.
The values to be read do not all have to be in a single DATA statement, it can
be distributed over any number of DATA statements. It always applies that the
next read variable in a DATA statement is read with the next READ variable.
If all the values in the DATA lines are read, the next READ instruction results
in an ERROR code.
Example:
10: DIM B (10)
20: FOR I = 1 TO 10: READ B (I)
30: PRINT B (I): NEXT I
40: DATA 10,20,30,40,50
50: DATA 60,70,80,90,100
REM (‘)
Format:
REM
Description: allows insertion of comments in the program text.
Comments are used to identify parts of the program. The comments are
ignored during program execution. Instead of REM, the apostrophe (') can also
be used. Program lines marked as such are non-executable instructions. If
these are jumped to by GOTO or GOSUB, program execution continues with
the next non-comment line. Comments can be added after statements in a line
by using the colon (:) as the delimiter before REM.
10: V = G * H / 3: REM VOLUME OF A PYRAMID
If using an apostrophe, a colon is not required, as it includes the separation
function:
10: V = G * H / 3 'VOLUME OF A PYRAMID
After the REM instruction, the rest of the line is considered a comment. Any
statements after the comment on the same line are ignored.
10: REM VOLUME OF PYRAMID: V = G * H / 3
20: 'VOLUME OF PYRAMID: V = G * H / 3
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RENUM
Format:
RENUM [oldline[, newline][, increment]]
Abbr:
REN.
Description: renumbers the lines of a BASIC program.
Line numbers are changed from old line numbers to new line numbers with
the specified increment.
oldline
: selects the first line for renumbering.
newline
: defines the new starting line number.
increment
: specifies the interval which the numbers are generated. If
this information is missing, line numbers are generated in
increments of ten.
RENUM automatically corrects all line numbers in GOTO and GOSUB
statements accordingly. This also applies to the line numbers used in other
branch instructions, e.g. IF…THEN…ELSE, are included. If renumbering is
attempted with a non-existent line number, an error message is displayed and
renumbering is stopped.
REPEAT … UNTIL
Format:
REPEAT
statement
UNTIL condition
Abbr:
REP. UN.
Description: execute statements between REPEAT and UNTIL until condition is true.
REPEAT and UNTIL includes a set of statements to be repeated. After
executing the statements after REPEAT, condition is checked by UNTIL. If
condition is true, execution continues with the line after UNTIL. This
completes the loop. If condition is false, the statements after REPEAT are
executed until condition is true.
A REPEAT…UNTIL loop may be nested within another one. The inner loop
must be completely nested within the outer loop.
If the program exits the REPEAT…UNTIL loop before condition is true, a
nesting error may occur, depending on how the loops are executed (for
example, if the program contains several REPEAT statements).
REPEAT and UNTIL must always be used together. The commands CLEAR,
DIM, and ERASE cannot be use in a REPEAT…UNTIL loop.
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227
RESTORE
Format:
RESTORE [line-number|"label"]
Abbr:
RES.
See also:
DIM, READ
Description: resets the DATA pointer or to the beginning of the indicated DATA line. This
allows the values provided by the DATA statements to be read again.
If RESTORE is used without parameters, the pointer will be set to the first
value of the first DATA line found in the program.
If a line-number or a "label" is specified, the pointer is set to the first element
of the DATA statement occurring in this line.
If the line specified as a parameter does not contain a DATA statement, the
pointer is set to the beginning of the next DATA statement.
Example:
100: DIM A$(3*10)
110: GOSUB "FRUIT"
120: RESTORE
130: GOSUB "FRUIT"
140: RESTORE 310
150: GOSUB "FRUIT"
160: END
200: "FRUIT"
210: FOR N = 1 TO 3
220: READ A$(I)
230: PAUSE A$
240: NEXT N
250: PAUSE
260: RETURN
300: DATA "PLUM", "PEACH" "," NECTARINE "
310: DATA" APPLE "," PEAR "," MANDRIN”
>RUN
PLUM
PEACH
NECTARINE
PLUM
PEACHCH
NECTARINE
APPLE
PEAR
MANDRIN
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228
RIGHT$
Format:
RIGHT$(string, number)
Abbr:
RI.
See also:
LEN, LEFT$, MID$
Description: returns a substring of number characters starting from the right of string.
number must be in the range 0 to 255. If a fractional number is used, it will be
rounded to the nearest whole number. If number is greater than the number of
characters of the given string, the entire string is returned.
Example:
5: WAIT 32
10: X $ = "SHARP"
20: FOR N = 1TO 6
30: S $ = RIGHT$(XS, N)
40: PRINT S$
50: NEXT N
60: WAIT
70: END
>RUN
P
RP
ARP
HARP
SHARP
SHARP
>
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229
RND
Format:
RND(expression)
Abbr:
RN.
See also:
RANDOMIZE
Description: generates a random number
The argument expression can be any numeric expression. If expression is less
than 1 but greater than or equal to 0, the random number is less than 1 and
greater than 0. If expression is an integer greater than or equal to 1, the result
is a random number greater than or equal to 1 and less than or equal to
expression. If expression is greater than or equal to 1 and not an integer, the
result is a random number greater than or equal to 1 and less than or equal to
the smallest integer that is larger than the expression. (In this case, the
generation of the random number changes dependent on the decimal portion
of the argument.) If expression is negative, the previously set numeric
expression is used to generate the random number.
<number>
Lower Bound
Upper Bound
.5
0<
<1
2
1
2
2.5
1
3
The same sequence of random numbers is normally generated because the
same “seed” is used each time the computer is turned on. To randomize the
seed, use the RANDOMIZE command.
Example:
10: FOR I = 1 TO 3
20: FOR J = 1 TO 10: R = RND(9): PRINT R; : NEXT J
30: PRINT: NEXT I
40: END
>RUN
6425682768
5577126536
3157345742
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230
RUN
Format:
RUN [line-number|"label"]
Abbr:
R.
See also:
END, STOP
Description: starts a BASIC program in memory.
Without a parameter, the execution of the program begins with its first line,
that is, the smallest occurring line number. Specifying a line-number or a label
starts the program from the specified point.
RUN deletes variables and sets the internal pointer of DATA statement to the
first possible position.
Example:
>RUN
>RUN 100
>RUN "F"
>RUN "BRAND"
SAVE
Format:
SAVE "filename[.BAS]"
Abbr:
SA.
Description: saves the BASIC program in memory to the RAM disk. If filename already
exists, it will be overwritten. If no extension is specified, .BAS is assumed.
See also: LOAD, KILL
Example:
SAVE "TEST"
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STOP
Format:
STOP
Abbr:
S.
See also:
CONT
Description: interrupt a program during the test phase.
If a STOP command is issued, the program is aborted and a message BREAK
IN <line number> is displayed stating which line was aborted.
By querying the variables and other examinations, the source of program
errors can be discovered. Likewise, incorrectly assigned variables can now be
assigned the expected values and further behavior can be tested by restarting
the program with CONT. Continuation is only possible if no changes have
been made to any program lines.
Unlike END, STOP does not close any open files.
Example:
10: FOR N = 1 TO 10
20: LET S = N * 5
30: STOP
40: GRAPH
50: LINE(0,0) - (N, S)
60: NEXT N
STR$
Format:
STR$(expression)
Abbr:
STR.
Description: converts expression into a string.
The resulting string consists of the characters of the numeric value. However,
the string cannot be used for calculations.
The function STR$ can be regarded as the inverse of the VAL function. If the
numeric value is negative, the string also contains the relevant sign.
If the numerical value is too large to represent with ten digits, it will appear in
floating point notation.
Example:
⋮
110: N = N * 3
120: A$ = STR$(N)
130: B$ = LEFT$(A$, 1)
140: M = VAL(B$)
⋮
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SWITCH … CASE … DEFAULT … ENDSWITCH
Format:
SWITCH variable
CASE value1 | letter-sequence1
statement1
CASE value2 | letter-sequence2
statement2
⋮
[DEFAULT
statement#]
ENDSWITCH
Abbr:
SW. CAS. DEFA. ENDS.
Description: executes specific instructions according to the value of a given variable.
This command compares the value of variable following SWITCH with a
number or a string of letters that follows each CASE statement. If they match,
the statements between the matching CASE statement and the next CASE
statement are executed. If the value of the variable does not match any CASE
statement, the DEFAULT statement is executed. If no DEFAULT statement is
available, the ENDSWITCH statement is executed.
If the same sequence of numbers or strings is used in more than one CASE
statement, the CASE statement closest to the SWITCH statement will be
executed if they match.
SWITCH and ENDSWITCH must always be used together. CASE, DEFAULT
and ENDSWITCH must always follow after a line number, not a label.
SWITCH statements cannot be nested.
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TRON / TROFF
Format:
TRON
TROFF
Abbr:
TR. TROF.
Description: switch TRACE mode on or off.
If this mode is activated via the TRON command, the computer stops after
executing each BASIC line and displays the line number on the screen.
Each subsequent keypress will execute and display the line number of the next
program line. If a key is pressed continuously, the computer processes the
program lines one after the other without displaying the corresponding line
numbers. A line which has just been processed can be made visible by
pressing
.
If execution halts as a result of a PRINT or INPUT command, execution can
be continued by pressing
.
If the program halts due to a STOP command or if it was aborted by the
.BREAK. key, the program can be restarted with .SHIFT. + .CA..
TROFF turns off the trace mode.
TRON and TROFF are also programmable. TRACE mode will remain in effect
until the next TROFF command is found in the program.
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USING
Format:
USING [format-string]
Abbr:
U.
Description: controls the format of displayed or printed output.
USING can be used by itself or as a clause in a PRINT, or LPRINT
statement. When used in a PRINT, or LPRINT statement, it is valid only for
the values or strings output by that statement. If used independently (on an
independent line), it is valid for all subsequent PRINT or LPRINT
commands. USING establishes a specified output format for all output that
follows until changed by another USING.
Format is determined by format-string, which consists of a series of characters
that must be enclosed in quotation marks. The characters that make up format-
string are:
# Right-justified numeric field character
.
Decimal point (delimiter between the integer and decimal part of a
number
,
3-digit separator in numeric fields
^ Display the number in scientific notation
& Left-justified alphanumeric field
The number sign (#) and the ampersand (&) are placeholders. For each #
contained in format-string, one digit of the numerical value can be displayed.
For each &, one character of a string can be displayed. All other format
symbols are used to describe the numeric formats in more detail. With the
numerical formats, both positive and negative values can be represented.
However, the sign is only displayed for negative values.
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Together with the string format can be a total of six basic formats can be
defined:
(1) "###"
43
(2) "###."
98.
(3) "###. ##"
64.29
5.00
-13.44
-2.00
(4) "##. ##^"
23.11E 05
-4.33E-02
7.00E 00
(5) "###, ###."
34,567. 2
-230.
2,345.
(6) "&&&&&&"
ABCDEF
The maximum number of # allowed in formats (1), (2), (3), (4) and (6) is 11
and 14 in format (5).
VAL
Format:
VAL(string)
Abbr:
V.
Description: converts string to a numeric value.
The VAL function can be regarded as the inverse of two functions, STR$ and
HEX$. It converts a string consisting of numeric characters into a numeric
value.
If string is a decimal string, it must be composed of the characters 0 through
9. It may contain a decimal point and an exponent, plus a sign for the mantissa
and one for the exponent. In this case, VAL is the exact inverse of STR$.
If string is a hexadecimal string, the first character in the string must be ‘&’,
and the subsequent characters must be symbols used to represent hex digits. In
this case, VAL acts as the inverse of the HEX$ function.
If string contains invalid characters, 0 is returned.
Example:
10: INPUT "FREQUENCY ="; A $
15: IF ASC(A$) <48 OR ASC(A$)> 57 THEN 100
20: F = VAL(A$)
30: PRINT F
40: END
⋮
100: PRINT "ONLY NUMBER ENTRY ALLOWED"
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VDEG
Format:
VDEG(string)
Abbr:
VD.
See also:
DEG, DMS
Description: converts a string in the format "dd°mm’ssrr" (sexagesimal) to an angle in
degrees, where:
dd
: degrees
mm : minutes
ss
: seconds
rr
: fractional seconds (00 ... 99)
Example:
10: AA$ = "1°30'36""
20: B = VDEG AA$
30: PRINT B
>RUN
1.51
WAIT
Format:
WAIT[expression]
Abbr:
W.
Description: controls the length of time that displayed information is shown before
program execution continues.
WAIT without a parameter sets the waiting time to 0. After a PRINT
statement, the program stops completely. However, since you can see a >, the
program is not aborted. It only paused and can be continued by pressing
.
If expression is specified, the waiting time is determined as a multiple of 1/64
second. A value 64 results in a pause of 1 second, a value 128 of 2 seconds,
etc. The value of expression ranges from 0…65535. expression can be any
numeric expression.
A default WAIT duration of 0 is set on starting a program.
Example:
10: FOR I = 1 TO 10
20: WAIT (64 * I)
30: PRINT "*";
40: NEXT I
50: WAIT
60: END
>RUN
**********
Each star appears 1 second later than the previous one.
>
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WHILE … WEND
Format:
WHILE condition
statement
WEND
Abbr:
WH. WE.
Description: The instructions between WHILE and WEND are executed as long as condition
is true.
First, condition of the WHILE statement is checked. If condition is false,
execution resumes at the statement after WEND. If condition is true, the
instructions between WHILE and WEND are repeated until condition is false.
WHILE and WEND must always be used together. The commands CLEAR,
DIM or ERASE cannot be used within a WHILE loop.
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13.3. I/O Commands
CLOSE
Format:
CLOSE [#file-number1 [, #file-number2]…]
Abbr:
CLOS.
See also:
END, OPEN
Description: closes all I/O ports.
Closing an I/O port does not require any additional parameters.
INP
Format:
INP(port)
INP
See also:
OUT
Description: returns a byte of data from the specified port.
The value port determines the input port from which a byte is to be fetched.
The port is specified by a 16-bit address, i.e. with a value in the range
0…65535 or &0…&FFFF
INP without parameters returns the values of XIN, DIN and ACK from the 11-
pin interface.
Example:
10: A = INP
20: PRINT A
>3
0x4 + 1x2 + 1x1 = 3
XIN = Lo DIN = HI ACK = HI
LLIST
Format:
LLIST [line-number1|"label1"][-[line-number2|
"label2"]]
Abbr:
LL.
Description: outputs lines of a BASIC program.
Use of LLIST is as described under General Commands (page 211).
However, if a I/O port is open, output is sent as ASCII characters to the I/O
port. If the I/O port is closed, output is directed to the printer (CE-126P).
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LPRINT
Format:
LPRINT [USING "format"] [expression1|string1[,|;
[expression2|string2]…][;]
Abbr:
LP.
See also:
PRINT
Description: sends output to the printer, I/O port.
Use of LPRINT is as described under General Commands (page 214).
However, if the I/O port is open, output is sent as ASCII characters to the I/O
port. If the I/O port is closed, output is directed to the printer (CE-126P).
OPEN
Format:
OPEN "COM:|COM1:|LPRT:|PIO:"
Abbr:
OP.
See also:
CLOSE, END
Description: opens a port on a device for reading or writing.
Opening an I/O device does not require any additional options.
COM: Serial input/output. Input/output takes place via the usual input
and output commands. The file number is #1 (for example,
PRINT#1,”Hello world.”) It is also possible to
communicate using the INP and OUT commands. The settings for
the serial interface are found in TEXT mode under SIO Format.
COM1: Similar to COM:
PIO: communication with the PIO. Input / output is via the commands
PIOSET, PIOGET, PIOPUT, INP, OUT
LPRT: output to a serial printer. Commands like LPRINT, LLIST are
redirected to the serial port
Example:
10: OPEN "LPRT:"
10: OPEN "COM1:"
10: OPEN "COM:"
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OUT
Format:
OUT address, byte[byte]…
OUT value
Description: sends one byte to the desired memory address of the Z80-compatible
microprocessor.
address : is an address (16-bit value) in the range 0…65535 (&0…&FFFF),
which selects the desired port.
byte
: specifies the value to be inserted to the address. If several bytes
are listed, each subsequent byte is sent to the next memory
address. Successive bytes are thus passed to consecutive
addresses in memory.
OUT also sets the bits for BUSY, DOUT and XOUT on the 11-pin interface.
Before setting, OPEN must be executed on COM:, COM1: or LPRT.
See also: INP
Example:
OUT 80,187
This statement sends the value 187 (= &BB) to memory
address 80 (= &50).
OUT 6
6 = 1x4 + 1x2 + 0x1
BUSY = HI, DOUT = HI, XOUT = LO
PIOGET
Format:
PIOGET
Description: reads a byte from the PIO port.
The PIO port must be initialized with OPEN "PIO:" and PIOSET prior to
running PIOGET.
PIOPUT
Format:
PIOPUT byte
Description: writes byte to the PIO port.
The PIO port must be initialized with OPEN "PIO:" and PIOSET prior to
running PIOPUT.
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PIOSET
Format:
PIOSET byte
Description: sets input and output mode of the PIO port.
byte is interpreted bit by bit:
Bit 7 : EX2
Bit 6 : EX1
Bit 5 : ACK
Bit 4 : Din
Bit 3 : Xout
Bit 2 : Xin
Bit 1 : Dout
Bit 0 : Busy
Example:
PIOSET &HF0
(Din, ACK, EX1, EX2)
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APPENDIX A: 11-PIN INTERFACE
Signals and Pin-Out
On the left side of the PC-G850V(S) there is an 11-pin interface intended for communication
with other devices. It is a multi-functional interface, hence, it can operate in different (sub-
)modes. The actual mode is selected through operational commands or menu items of the
PC-G850V(S).
1. SIO / RS-232C mode (e.g. OPEN“COM:“)
2. SSIO mode (Synchronous Serial Input/Output)
a. CE-126P print protocol (e.g. LPRINT without preceding OPEN)
b. LPRT-protocol (e.g. OPEN“LPRT:“)
3. PWM mode (Pulse Width Modulation)
a. CE-126P tape protocol (e.g. BSAVE/BLOAD with a CE-126P)
b. Generic PWM-protocol (e.g. BSAVE/BLOAD with another PC-G850V)
4. PIO mode (e.g. OPEN“PIO:“)
Programmable, 8-bit parallel port interface
5. PIC mode (activated by the PIC-loader in the assembler menu)
Programming interface for PIC microcontrollers
The association of physical pins to logical signals (called pin-out) as well as the configured
direction for input (I) or output (O) depends on the active mode. The following table gives an
overview. Looking at the left side of the PC-G850V(S) pin-1 is the leftmost and pin-11 the
rightmost.
Pin
#
SIO mode
SSIO/PWM mode
PIO mode
PIC mode
Signal
I/O
Signal
I/O
Signal
I/O
Signal
I/O
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
VCC (+5V)
–
VCC (+5V)
–
VCC (+5V)
–
VCC (+5V)
–
3
GND
–
GND
–
GND
–
GND
–
4
RTS
O
BUSY
O
Bit0
I/O
CP
O
5
DTR
O
DOUT
O
Bit1
I/O
CLK#
O
6
RXD
I
XIN
I
Bit2
I/O
DATAIN
I
7
TXD
O
XOUT
O
Bit3
I/O
DATAOUT
O
8
CD
I
DIN
I
Bit4
I/O LOWBATT#
I
9
CTS
I
ACK
I
Bit5
I/O
–
–
10
DSR
I
EX1
I
Bit6
I/O
–
–
11
CI
I
EX2
I
Bit7
I/O
–
–
The next sections describe the SIO mode and the respective connection options in detail. The
other modes are covered subsequently.
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SIO mode
RS-232 Standard and Conventions
The PC-G850V(S) in SIO mode exposes the signals of the RS-232 standard, but with
different voltage levels (see below). This section provides the necessary basics of the
standard and covers some specifics of the PC-G850V(S).
Within the RS-232 standard the terms DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and DCE (Data
Communication Equipment) are introduced. The DTE is the PC-G850 for example and the
DCE is a modem or another peripheral device, like a serial printer.
When two computers shall communicate directly (i.e. without a modem), you need a so
called null-modem (cable/adaptor), which connects the outputs of one DTE with the inputs of
the other and vice versa (crossed signals).
Typically 25-pin (Sub-D 25 / DB-25) or 9-pin (Sub-D 9 / DB-9) plugs and jacks are used to
connect RS-232 capable devices.
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The pin-out and meanings are summarized in the following table.
Signal
Name
Alternative
Name
Direction
(DTE
view)
Definition
Pin #
DB9
Pin#
DB25
TXD Transmitted Data
SD
Out
Data from DTE to DCE
3
2
RXD Received Data
RD
In
Data from DCE to DTE
2
3
RTS Request (Ready) to
Send
RS
Out
DTE requests permission from
DCE to send data
7
4
RTR Ready to Receive
DTE is ready to receive data from
DCE
CTS Clear to Send
CS
In
DCE is ready to receive data from
DTE
8
5
DTR Data Terminal Ready
ER
Out
DTE interface ready for operation
4
20
DSR Data Set Ready
DR
In
DCE interface ready for operation
6
6
CD
Carrier Detect
In
DCE detects remote DCE
1
8
CI
Call Indicator
DI
In
Call of a remote DCE
9
22
GND Signal Ground
SG
None
Signal ground (reference)
5
7
FG
Frame Ground
PG
None
Shield
–
1
Note: In the late 1980’s there was a shift in the meaning of the RTS signal:
Originally the DTE (computer) requests the DCE (modem) for permission
that the DTE may send data - and the DCE “answers” via CTS. But this
protocol is asymmetric because the DTE has no means to notify the DCE
to wait for internal computations when the DCE sends data. For this
reason, “Request To Send” was re-claimed: The DTE requests the DCE to
send data – or in other words, the DTE is “Ready To Receive” (RTR).
RTR and CTS are now independent of each other and the protocol
between DTE and DCE is symmetric. But in most cases the name
“Request To Send” (RTS) was kept, hence it is fairly ambiguous.
The PC-G850V(S) implements the newer, symmetric RTR-semantics (but the signal name
RTS has been kept). This is in contrast to the preceding pocket computer model PC-E500(S),
which implements the original RTS meaning and therefore needs the XON/XOFF-protocol
when it reads data/programs from a PC. The PCG850V(S) sets the DTR signal to HIGH,
when the SIO-interface is active, but it does not care about the DSR input. So there is no
DTR/DSR-handshake. The RTS/CTS handshake, or alternatively the XON/XOFF-protocol
can be configured in the TEXT/Sio/Format-submenu by the item "flow".
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Signal Levels
The following table summarizes the logic and voltage levels of the RS-232 standard in
comparison with UART-TTL and the PC-G850V(S).
Logic
level
Voltage
level
Description of data
signals (RXD, TXD)
Description of control
signals (RTS, CTS, etc.)
RS-232
LOW
-15V to -3V 1 (Mark), Idle, Stop
Inactive
HIGH
+3v to +15V 0 (Space), Start
Active
UART-TTL
LOW
0V
0 (Space), Start
Active
HIGH
+3.3V/+5V
1 (Mark), Idle, Stop
Inactive
PC-G850V(S)
LOW
0V
1 (Mark), Idle, Stop
Inactive
HIGH
5V
0 (Space), Start
Active
So the PC-G850V(S) exposes inverted UART-TTL level signals in SIO-mode, just as most
other SHARP pocket computers do. That means the logic is identical to the RS-232 standard
(HIGH=0/active), but the voltage level is TTL.
Caution: In order to connect peripheral devices with the PC-G850V(S) that operate at
RS-232 voltage levels, a level converter is mandatory!
The state of the TXD- and RTS-signals in SIO mode is undefined, except for the following
cases:
1. The interface has explicitly been opened in SIO mode (e.g. OPEN“COM:“) when in
BASIC mode.
2. R- or W-commands are executed in MON mode.
3. Data transfer via SIO in TEXT mode.
Data Transfer Cable CE-T800 and CE-T801
The data transfer cables CE-T800 and CE-T801 are RS-232 level converters with an
integrated null-modem wiring. They can be used to connect the PC-G850V(S) to a personal
computer (PC) or other devices.
With these cables you can transfer data, program source-code or machine language programs
from or to a PC by using the TEXT/SIO submenu or the SIO commands (R, W) of the
integrated hex-monitor (MON). The DB-25 plug of the cable can be connected directly to a
PC (if necessary via a DB-9 adaptor), when there is a physical COM port. Alternatively, it
can be connected to a USB-port through an additional serial-to-USB adaptor. Don't use a
null-modem adaptor or wiring for a PC-connection (because it's already integrated in the
cable).
However, if a peripheral RS-232 device like the 4-color plotter CE-515P is to be connected, a
null-modem adaptor/wiring is mandatory in order to compensate for the integrated one.
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On the CE-T800 pins 6 and 20 are not connected, pin 11 is not connected on both models
(CE-T800 and CE-T801).
Caution: Never touch the pins of the DB-25 plug. Static electricity may be harmful for
the circuits.
A free working area of about 300bytes is required for data transfer from a PC.
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USB PC Adapter Cable with Hardware Handshake
An elegant, powerful yet simple DIY alternative to connecting the PC-G850V (S) to a
modern PC is based on a pre-fabricated USB-UART adapter cable with an open ends.
Specification: FTDI USB-UART / TTL Adapter Cable with FT232R Chip, 5V, 6-pin
(GND, 5V, RXD, TXD, RTS, CTS)
For physical connection with the 11-pin interface of the PC-G850V a common multi-pin
connector with 2.54mm spacing can be used. You need to solder the UART lines of
adaptor to the multi-pin connector by using a null-modem wiring.
FTDI-UART signal (color) PC-G850V(S) signal (pin)
GND (black)
GND (3)
RXD (yellow)
TXD (7)
TXD (orange)
RXD (6)
CTS (brown)
RTS (4)
RTS (green)
CTS (9)
VCC (red)
-
Additionally, a 10Kohm resistor should be between pin 4 and pin 3 on the connector. This
serves as a pulldown for the RTS signal in order to produce a defined LOW level. Without
this, I/O errors in the data transfer from the PC to the PC-G850V(S) may occur because the
PC may not receive wait requests from the Pocket Computer.
Finally, download the tool FT_PROG from the manufacturer's website: www.ftdichip.com.
With this tool, you must invert the signals RXD, TXD, RTS and CTS of the FTDI chip since
the serial interface of the PC-G850V(S) works with inverted UART logic (see above). This
only needs to be done once as the settings are stored permanently in the integrated EEPROM
of the FTDI chip.
RS-232 printer
The SIO mode can also be used to control printers that have an RS-232C interface, such as
the 4-color plotter CE-515P or CE-516P.
Never connect an RS-232 printer without a level converter to the PC-G850V(S)! You can use
the data transmission cable CE-T800 / 801 in combination with null modem wiring or
adaptor. For the CE-515P / 516P via RS-232, a DIN-4 plug is required with the following
wiring (null modem included):
DIN-4 plug
CE-T800 / 1 DB-25 plug
Pin#
Signal
Pin#
Signal
1
+12V
–
2
BUSY#
4
RTS
3
GND
7
GND
4
DATA#
3
RXD
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Be sure to properly configure the DIP switches on the back panel of the CE-515P / 516P (see
printer manual for details). Additionally, the RS-232 settings in the TEXT/Sio/Format
submenu of the PC-G850V(S) must be changed to the following to communicate with the
CE-151P:
Baud rate = 1200
Data bit
= 8
Stop bit
= 1
Parity
= none
End of line = CR
Flow
= RS/CS
To direct output to a RS-232 printer, the 11-pin interface must be opened explicitly in SIO
mode (OPEN”COM:”) and closed after use (CLOSE). Character strings and control codes are
transmitted via the PRINT#1 command.
OPEN”COM:”
PRINT#1,”HELLO WORLD”
⋮
CLOSE
The commands LPRINT, LLIST, LFILES, however, are not routed to the 11-pin interface
in SIO mode.
SSIO mode
The SSIO mode is for synchronous, serial data transfer, in contrast to the asynchronous serial
data transfer of the SIO mode. “Synchronous” means that the sender also provides and
additional strobe/clock signal to which the receiver aligns. This makes an explicit baud rate
obsolete. Therefore, SIO parameters in the TEXT / Sio / Format menu are irrelevant.
The SSIO mode of the PC-G850V (S) has several sub-modes or protocols.
CE-126P printer protocol
This is the default protocol for the 11-pin interface of the PC-G850V(S). It is the protocol for
the CD-126P printer and it is active if and only if there are no other sub-modes selected. The
commands LPRINT, LLIST and LFILES are routed to the printer in this mode.
The integrated cassette interface of the CE-126P can also be controlled by the PC-G850V.
The corresponding protocol shares the same handshake as the printer protocol, but it uses
PWM for data transfer instead of SSIO (see below).
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The pin-out and signal descriptions within the CE-126P print protocol is as follows:
Pin# Signal Direction
Description
4
BUSY
Out
Clock for synchronous, serial data transmission
5
DOUT
Out
Data line
6
XIN
In
No function
7
XOUT
Out
HIGH: CE-126P sub-device select (printer vs. cassette interface)
resp. command transfer
LOW: idle or data transfer
8
DIN
In
No function
9
ACK
In
CE-126P ready to receive data or commands (handshake)
10
EX1
In
No function
11
EX2
In
No function
The following diagram shows the timing of the LPRINT "X" command with the CE-126P
connected:
The PC-G850V (S) waits for the ACK signal before setting BUSY high. This synchronous
serial protocol is also used by the CE-126P interface of the PC-E500(S).
LPRT Protocol and Mini I/O Port
The mini-I / O port of the PC-G850V(S) is just the logical grouping of the six main signals of
the SSIO mode into two groups of three signals/bits each:
Mini I/O output port (3-bit)
XOUT (Bit-0)
DOUT (Bit-1)
BUSY (Bit-2)
Mini I/O input port (3-bit)
ACK (Bit-0)
DIN (Bit-1)
XIN (bit 2)
The bits of the mini I/O port can be explicitly controlled via the functions OUT/miniput()
and INP/miniget(), so that custom communication protocols can be implemented on
that basis
In addition, the PC-G850V(S) offers a synchronous, serial protocol for data transfer to a
respective peripheral device. To enable this, the 11-pin interface must be opened with the
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
251
command OPEN(“LPRT:”). The data streams of the commands LPRINT, LLIST and
LFILES are then sent over this protocol using ASCII code.
The definitions of the signals of the LPRT protocol is as follows:
Pin#
Signal
Direction
Function
4
BUSY
Out
Frame indicator for each transmitted byte
5
DOUT
Out
Data line
7
XOUT
Out
Clock with pause after each byte
9
ACK
In
LOW: Receiver is ready
HIGH: PC- G850V(S) must wait
The following diagram shows the signal timings:
Data is transmitted byte byte-wise with the most significant bit (MSB) first. DOUT is valid
on the rising edge of the pulse. The BUSY signal provides an additional reference frame for
each byte.
PWM Mode
CE-126P Tape Protocol
This protocol is implemented by the commands BSAVE, BSAVEM, BLOAD, BLOADM,
BLOAD? when the CE-126P (or compatible cassette interface) is connected for storing,
loading, and verifying BASIC programs or binary data (such as machine programs) by means
of a cassette recorder, like the CE-152.
The protocol includes the SSIO handshake of the CE-126P printer protocol is identical, but
data transfer is achieved using pulse width modulation (the digital equivalent of analog
waveforms). It is a mixture of SSIO and PWM protocol.
Here are the definitions of the CE-126P tape protocol signals:
Pin# Signal Direction
Description
4
BUSY
Out
Clock for synchronous, serial handshake
5
DOUT
Out
Data line for handshake
6
XIN
In
PWM encoded data from the cassette interface (load)
7
XOUT
Out
Handshake: See CE-126P printer protocol
Data: PWM encoded data to the cassette interface (save)
8
DIN
In
No function
9
ACK
In
CE-126P ready to receive data or commands (handshake)
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
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The following diagram shows the signal paths of the CE-126P band protocol of a BSAVE
execution (saving a single-line BASIC program):
The dynamics for a BLOAD operation is equivalent. The difference that the PWM data is
received on the XIN signal.
Generic PWM protocol
This protocol is equal to the CE-126P tape protocol reduced to XOUT and XIN (i.e.,
handshake is omitted). It is activated by the commands BSAVE, BSAVEM, BLOAD, BLOADM,
BLOAD? if no CE-126P (or compatible cassette interface) is connected. Typically, this would
be the case when two PC-G850V(S) are directly connected by data exchange cable, like the
EA-129C. The PC-G850V(S) distinguishes between the CE-126P tape protocol and the
generic PWM protocol by setting XOUT to HIGH at the start of a BSAVE/BLOAD command
and then observes the response of ACK. If ACK is not set HIGH, then the generic PWM
protocol is used (i.e. BUSY/DOUT/ACK handshake is skipped).
PIO mode
The PIO mode is primarily intended for controlling external digital hardware rather than
communication with other devices. In this mode, the pocket computer becomes a
microcontroller with an on-board development environment.
The 11-pin interface becomes a programmable 8-bit port. The logic levels (LOW/HIGH) can
be set and read by the PIO API (application programming interface) in BASIC or C. Each of
the 8 signals/bits can be configured individually to serve as input or output. The direction can
be set by the pioset/PIOSET function (see Command Reference). The function
pioput/PIOPUT sets the individual logic levels of each signal by setting the respective bit
of 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). Signals that are configured as input are ignored. The function
pioget/PIOGET reads all 8 logic levels of the port into one byte.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
253
The following is a very basic example of PIO mode use:
In this example, bit-0/pin-4 serves as an output which lights up a LED when it is HIGH. Bit
1/pin 5, on the other hand, Bit-1 / Pin-5, on the other hand, serves as an input and represents
the status of a push button switch. An open input (i.e., undefined input level) is interpreted as
logical 0, which is the case when the button is open. In order to distinguish that state from the
closed state, the button is connected to VCC (i.e., HIGH / logic 1) and not to GND.
The goal of the “microcontroller” code would be to switch on the LED with the first button
press and to switch it off with the next, and so on. An example in the C programming
language is shown below (BASIC would be similar, however, less structured).
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
254
1 #define BOOL char
2 #define TRUE 1
3 #define FALSE 0
4 #define BTN 0x02
5
6 char BTNstate = 0;
7 char LEDstate = 0;
9
10 BOOL setupPIO() {
11 if(!fopen("pio","a+")) {
12 printf("can't open port\n");
13 return FALSE;
14 }
15 pioset(BTN);
16 return TRUE;
17 }
19
20 BOOL pressed() {
21 BOOL rtn=FALSE;
22 char btn;
23 btn=pioget()&BTN;
24 if(btn && BTNstate==0)
25 rtn=TRUE;
26 BTNstate=btn;
27 return rtn;
28 }
29
30 toggleLED() {
31 LEDstate=!LEDstate;
32 printf("LED=%x\n",LEDstate);
33 pioput(LEDstate);
34 }
39
100 main() {
101 printf("PIO test\n");
102 if(!setupPIO())
103 abort();
104 while(TRUE) {
105 if(pressed()){
106 printf("button pressed\n");
107 toggleLED();
108 }
109 }
110 }
To enter the symbol '\', press .SHIFT. G in TEXT mode. It is displayed as ¥.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
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Comments on the code:
Line 4: Mask for bit-1 (0b00000010), i.e. push button input
Line 6: Global state variable for the push button
Line 7: Global state variable for the LED
Line 11: Opens the interface in PIO mode for read and write.
Line 15: Configure bit 1/pin 5 as input. All other signals are output.
Line 20: This function detects the transition from bit 1 = 0 to bit 1 = 1, i.e. the close
event of the push button.
Line 23: The PIO port is read and all bits except bit 1 are masked (hidden).
Line 30: This function changes the state of the LED
Line 33: The new LED state (bit 0) is written to the port. Unused outputs are set to 0.
Line 104: Main loop, abort with the ON / BREAK button
The following images shows an example of the test setup and the respective trace outputs on
the display of the PC-G850V.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
256
PIC mode
The PIC mode of the PC-G850V(S) is used to transfer an assembled PIC program (see
chapter 12) to a PIC microcontroller. This process is called PIC programming, PIC program
(up)loading, or PIC burning, since a specific “burning” voltage is needed that is much higher
than normal operating voltage. This mode is activated by the PIC loader option in the PIC
assembler submenu. The PC-G850V(S) supports the serial ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) protocol of the PIC16F8x family and compatible models.
The pin out and signal description of the 11-pin interface in PIC mode are:
Pin#
Signal
Direction
Description
4
CP
Out
This signal controls the ICSP programming mode of the PIC.
If the signal is HIGH, the burning voltage (+12 to +14V)
must be applied to the MCLR of the PIC. If the signal is
LOW, the MCLR# must be at GND or VDD (+5V).
5
CLK
Out
This signal provides the ICSP clock pulse for the PIC to be
programmed. However, the inverted signal (i.e., CLK) must
be provided at RB6 of the PIC. The latter latches data bits on
the falling edge of the CLK pulse.
6
DATAIN
In
This input must be connected to RB7 of the PIC. Data is read
by the PIC for programming and verification.
7
DATAOUT
Out
This output is used for serial data and command transfer to
the PIC in ICSP mode. It needs to be connected to RB7 of the
PIC.
8
LOWBATT
In
This input can be connected to a voltage monitoring circuit
(especially when using an external power supply). LOW is
interpreted as power supply is too weak.
According to the specification of the PIC16F8x family, the PIC switches to ICSP
programming mode as soon as the following conditions are fulfilled:
VDD = + 5V, VSS = GND
MCLR# = +12 to +14V
RB6 (CLK) = LOW.
RB7 (DATA) = LOW.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
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The following figure shows the pin assignment of the PIC16F84A:
The PIC loader of the PC-G850V(S) supports the ICSP protocol as stated above, but this is
preceded by a connection check. If it fails, the programming process is stopped and the error
message Connection error! is displayed.
To explore the details of the PIC loader, we will use a minimalistic example code for the
PIC16F84A. It consists of the configuration word and an infinite loop without a body:
10 #include “p16f84a.inc”
20 __config 0x3ff6
30loop goto loop
The PIC assembler compiles this source program into a PIC machine program which is only
one PIC word (14-bit). The next diagram shows the phases of a successful burning process
controlled by the integrated PIC loader of the PC-G850V(S):
CLK was strobed at the RB6 input of the PIC (i.e., the already inverted CLK signal). Data
was strobed at RB7. CP directly controls the programming voltage at MCLR.
1. Connection Tests: The PC-G850 sets DATAOUT to HIGH and checks if DATAIN
also goes high. The two signals must therefore be connected, otherwise the ICSP
protocol will not be activated!
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
258
2. This is the ICSP phase. It is initiated by MCLR = 12.5V, CLK = LOW, DATA =
LOW.
a. Writing the assembled 14-bit word (PIC op-code)
b. Verification of the last programmed PIC op-code
c. Increment the PIC program counter. If the PIC program consisted of more
than one word, there would be a 2a/b/c loop for every other word.
d. Writing the PIC configuration word
e. Verification of the PIC configuration word
An enlargement of the phase 2a shows the following:
PIC-ICSP commands are 6 bits wide (see specifications for your PIC). A command can be
followed by a data word, reading or writing. Data words are 14-bit wide, but they are framed
by a start and a stop bit, so they are 16-bits overall. Transmission occurs with the least
significant bit (LSB) first. As previously mentioned, all bits are latched/provided at the
falling edge of the CLK pulse.
1. PIC ICSP command “Load Data for Program Memory” (0x02).
2. Data transfer for the “Load Data for Program Memory” command. For this example,
the 14-bit op-code compiled by the PIC assembler is 0x2800.
3. PIC ICSP command “Start Programming Cycle” (0x08). This command has no data
parameter and starts the PIC burning process for the latched 14-bit word.
A suitable PIC burner circuit is needed for the 11-pin interface of the PC-G850V(S), which
uses the integrated PIC loader and supports the PIC16F8x microcontroller family. The circuit
must meet the following criteria:
1. The CP signal must control the programming/burn voltage for the PIC.
2. DATAIN and DATAOUT must be interconnected for the connection check.
3. The CLK signal must be inverted at the RB6 pin of the PIC.
4. The CLK signal is very sensitive to crosstalk, especially from DATOUT. Shielding
may be necessary. Additionally, a pull-down resistor is required for a defined LOW
level of the CLK signal.
5. The LOWBATT input should either be connected to a programming voltage
monitoring circuit or be constantly HIGH.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
259
The following circuit meets these requirements. An additional feature is that it does not
require an external power supply for the programming voltage, but generates it from the
supply voltage (+5V) by means of a DC/DC converter:
A +5V to +12V DC/DC converter (e.g., TMA0512C or ~D) can be used to generate the burn
voltage. The CP signal controls this as VPP at the MCLR pin over the transistor path T1, T2.
The LED serves as an indicator for ICSP mode. The CLK signal is inverted via T3 and R8
and is applied to the PIC as CLK. C2 is optional and serves as a low-pass filter to clear the
CLK signal if necessary. The low voltage indicator applies only if the supply voltage falls
below the LOW threshold (i.e., logical 0) during the programming phase.
To test the complete PIC programming process with the PC-G850V(S), a simple program
that will flash an LED connected to pin RB1 of the PIC can be used:
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
260
10 #include "p16f84a.inc"
20 __config 0x3ff1 ;CP_OFF & PWRT_ON & WDT_OFF & XT_OSC
30DELAY1 equ 0x08 ;delay counter 1
40DELAY2 equ 0x09 ;delay counter 2
50 org 0
99
100start
110 bsf STATUS,RP0 ;change to bank 1
120 bcf TRISB,1 ;enable RB1 for output
130 bcf STATUS,RP0 ;back to bank 0
140loop
150 bsf PORTB,1 ;RB1=1,LED=on
160 call delay
170 bcf PORTB,1 ;RB1=0,LED=off
180 call delay
190 goto loop
299
300delay
310 movlw 255
320 movwf DELAY1
330 movwf DELAY2
340dloop
350 decfsz DELAY1,f
360 goto dloop
370 decfsz DELAY2,f
380 goto dloop
390 return
Enter the program in TEXT mode and compile it with the integrated PIC assembler. Now
connect a PIC16F84A to the 11-pin interface of the PC-G850V(S) with the above PIC burner
circuit (or an equivalent). Activate the PIC loader in the assembler menu (see chapter 12).
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: 11-Pin Interface
261
After successful programming, release the PIC from the burner and install it in the following
test circuit:
This test circuit uses an external crystal <4MHz as a clock. This corresponds to the setting of
XT_OSC within the configuration word (0x3FF1) of the example program (see specification
of the PIC16F84A).
If the PIC has been correctly "burned" with the example program, the LED will start flashing
as soon as a voltage source (+ V) is connected to the test circuit. The pushbutton is optional
and, when pressed, will place the PIC in the RESET state (MCLR = LOW). The program
execution will be stopped and the LED goes off. The flashing frequency is influenced on the
hardware side by the quartz frequency and on the software side by the number of iterations of
the external delay loop (line 310, value range = 1 … 255).
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix B – Keyboard Commands
263
APPENDIX B: KEYBOARD COMMANDS
Keys
Description
.ON.
Turns on the power even if the unit is turned off by the AUTO OFF
function.
Interrupt program execution (.BREAK.).
Interrupt the execution of commands such as LOAD or BSAVE
during direct entry.
In TEXT and C modes, returns to the main menu or menu.
.OFF.
Turn off the device
.BASIC.
Switch to BASIC. Toggles between RUN or PRO mode.
.SHIFT. + .ASBML.
Switches to assembler, CASL or PIC mode
.TEXT.
Switch to TEXT mode
.SHIFT. + .TEXT.
Switch to the C compiler
.SHIFT. + .ANS.
Adjust screen contrast.
.SHIFT.
Activate second function of a key (displayed directly above the
button). .SHIFT. must be held down to access.
.CAPS.
Toggle capital letters on and off. CAPS appears on the display when
on. By default, CAPS is on after turning on the device.
Toggle between large and small characters in Kanji mode.
Toggle Kanji mode on and off
.TAB.
Moves the cursor to the next tab position:
BASIC/RUN/PRO: moves at intervals of seven digits.
TEXT: moves by eight digits on the first press, six digits on the
second press, and seven digits on each subsequent press.
Moves the cursor to the right.
Executes playback instructions.
Displays the cursor when it is not visible when content is
displayed.
Clear an error message.
Delete a character in direct input.
Moves the cursor to the left. Otherwise, the same as the
button
.ANS.
Retrieve results of the last calculation.
.CONST.
Enters a constant for calculations (CONST appears on the display).
Pressing .SHIFT. + .CONST. (.2nd F. + .CONST.) will display the
currently stored constant.
.INS.
Switch to insert mode. On initial startup of the computer, insert mode
is off..
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix B – Keyboard Commands
264
Keys
Description
.SHIFT. + .DEL.
Deletes the character at the cursor location.
.BS.
Delete the character directly to the left of the cursor.
.2nd F.
Activate the second function of a key (displayed directly above the
key).
.CLS.
Clears the screen
Clears a displayed error.
.SHIFT. + .CA.
Clears the display and resets the computer to default state.
Reset the WAIT time setting.
Reset the display (USING) format
Reset TRON status to TROFF.
Clears error conditions
Enter a line of code into the computer when writing programs.
Ask for manual calculation or direct execution of a command
statement.
Resume a program that has been temporarily interrupted by the
INPUT command.
.SHIFT. + .PNP.
Toggle PRINT mode on or off when an optional printer is connected.
The keys
and
have various functions, depending on the operating mode and the status
of the computer as listed in the following table.
Mode
Status
RUN
Program execution
Not functional
Interrupted by STOP
or .BREAK..
Execution of following line
and stop.
Hold to display executable
or executed program line.
Error condition
Not functional
Hold to display line with
error.
Trace mode ON.
Hold to run program.
Hold to display executable
or executed program line.
PRO
(no program lines)
Program interrupted.
Display of the interrupted
line.
Error condition
Display of line with error
Other condition.
Display of first line
Display of last line
(line numbers displayed)
Display following program
line.
Display previous program
line
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix C – Calculation Ranges
265
APPENDIX C: CALCULATION RANGES
Numerical Calculations
For a calculation involving x, the number x must fall within one of the ranges below:
-1 x 10100 < x ≤ -1 x 10-99 for negative x
10-99 ≤ x < 10100 for positive x
x = 0
The value of x displayed is limited by the number of digits on the display screen.
Functions
Command
Function
Range of x
SIN x
COS x
TAN x
sin x
cos x
tan x
DEG:
| x | <1010
RAD:
| x | < 𝜋
180 x 1010
GRAD: | x | < 𝜋
9 x 1010
Also, only for tan x: (n = integer)
DEG:
| x | ≠ 90 (2n-1)
RAD:
| x | ≠ 𝜋
2 (2n-1)
GRAD: | x | ≠ 100 (2n-1)
ASN x
ACS x
sin-1 x
cos-1 x
-1 ≤ x ≤ 1
ATN x
tan-1 x
| x | < 10100
HSN x
HCS x
HTN x
sinh x
cosh x
tanh x
-227.9559242 ≤ x ≤ 230.2585092
AHS x
sinh-1 x
| x | < 1050
AHC x
cosh-1 x
1 ≤ x < 1050
AHT x
tanh-1 x
| x | < 1
LN x
LOG x
ln x
log x
10-99 ≤ x < 10100
EXP x
ex
-10100 < x ≤ 230.2585092
TEN x
10x
-10100 < x < 100
RCP x
SQU x
CUB x
SQR x
CUR x
1/x
x2
x3
√𝑥
√𝑥
3
| x | < 10100, x ≠ 0
| x | < 1050
| x | < 2.154434690 x 1033
0 ≤ x < 10100
| x | < 10100
y ^ x
(yx=10xlogy)
when y > 0, -10100 < x log y < 100
when y = 0, x > 0
when y < 0, {x = integer or 1
𝑥 = odd integer (x ≠ 0)
and − 10100 < x log | y | < 100
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix C – Calculation Ranges
266
Command
Function
Range of x
&H x
0 ≤ x ≤ 2540BE3FF (x in hexadecimal)
FDABF41C01 ≤ x ≤ FFFFFFFFFF
POL (x, y)
𝑟 = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝜃 = tan 𝑦
𝑥
(x2 + y2) < 10100
𝑦
𝑥 < 10100
REC (r,)
x = r cos
y = r sin
r < 10100
| r sin | < 10100,| r cos | < 10100
NPR (n,r)
nPr
𝑛!
(𝑛−𝑟)! < 10100, 0 ≤ r ≤ n ≤ 9999999999
n, r integers
NCR (n,r)
nCr
𝑛!
(𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟! < 10100, 0 ≤ r ≤ n ≤ 9999999999
n, r integers
when n – r < r, n – r ≤ 69
when n – r ≥ r, r ≤ 69
FACT x
n!
0 ≤ x ≤ 69
DEG x
DMS DEG
| x | < 104
DMS x
DEG DMS
| x | < 104
Statistical Calculations
Range
| x | < 1050
1 ≤ n < 10100
| y | < 1050
Statistics
For the following calculations, the absolute value of the intermediate and final results is
less than 1 x 10100. The denominator (divisor) is not 0. The result of √ is a positive number.
Σ𝑥
Σ𝑥2
Σ𝑦
Σ𝑦2
𝑥̅ =
Σ𝑥
𝑛
𝑦̅ =
Σ𝑦
𝑛
𝑠𝑥 = √Σ𝑥2−𝑛𝑥2
𝑛−1
𝑠𝑦 = √Σ𝑦2−𝑛𝑦2
𝑛−1
𝜎𝑥 = √Σ𝑥2−𝑛𝑥2
𝑛
𝜎𝑦 = √Σ𝑦2−𝑛𝑦2
𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥̅
𝑏 =
𝐒𝑥𝑦
S𝑥𝑥
𝑟 =
𝑆𝑥𝑦
√S𝑥𝑥 × S𝑦𝑦
S𝑥𝑥 = Σ𝑥2 −
(Σ𝑥)2
𝑛
𝑥′ =
𝑦−𝑎
𝑏
S𝑦𝑦 = Σ𝑦2 −
(Σ𝑦)2
𝑛
𝑦′ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
S𝑥𝑦 = Σ𝑥𝑦 −
Σ𝑥 × Σ𝑦
𝑛
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix D – Specifications
267
APPENDIX D: SPECIFICATIONS
Device:
PC-G850V(S)
Processor:
8-bit CMOS CPU (equivalent to Z80)
Memory capacity:
System Internal:
2.3KB
Fixed variable area:
208 bytes
Program/data area:
30179 bytes
Stack:
Function stack:
16 level
Data stack:
8 level
Subroutine stack:
10 level stack for BASIC
total of 90 bytes:
REPEAT-UNTIL: 4 bytes per instance
WHILE-WEND:
5 bytes per instance
SWITCH-CASE: 6 bytes per instance
FOR-NEXT:
18 bytes per instance (only one instance
SWITCH-CASE allowed)
Operators:
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions, logarithmic and exponential
functions, angle conversion, square and square root, power, sign,
absolute, integers, pi, coordinate conversion, etc.
Numerical precision:
10 digits (mantissa) + 2 digits (exponent)
Editing functions:
Cursor right and left, line up and down, character insert, character
delete.
TEXT Editor, monitor for Z80 machine language.
Interface Options:
Sharp-11Pin interface:
CE-126P (printer)
CE-T800 (PC data transmission cable)
EA-129C (connection cable between 2 Sharp computers)
Display:
Liquid crystal display
Text:
6 lines, 24 characters with 5x7 dot matrix
Graphics: 48x144 pixels
Operating temperature: 0°C – 40°C (32° – 104°F)
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix D – Specifications
268
Power supply:
Four AAA batteries
6V DC 0.2W external power supply. (e.g. EA-23E)
Power consumption:
0.2W at 6.0V DC.
Approximately 90 hours of continuous operation under normal
conditions (based on 10 minutes of operation or program execution
and 50 minutes of display per hour at a temperature of 20°C/68°F).
The operating time may vary slightly depending on usage and type
of battery used.
Dimensions:
196 (W) x 95 (D) x 20 (H) mm
Weight:
270g (G850VS: 260g)
Accessories:
Hard cover, 4 dry batteries. Operation Manual
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix E – Resetting the computer
269
APPENDIX E: RESETTING THE COMPUTER
If there is a problem with the computer, e.g. due to faulty programs, resetting the computer
can help.
1. Press the ON button and then press the
reset button under the SHIFT button
with a ballpoint pen or similar device.
Then release the reset button again.
2. Immediately after pressing the RESET button, the PC-G850V displays the following
screen. If any other indication appears, the repeat the above procedure. The PC-
G850V(S) asks for confirmation to clear the memory:
MEMORY CLEAR O.K.? (Y/N)
3. If you want to keep the data, press the ..N.. key
RUN MODE
>
If the computer still does not work properly, you can reset the computer to its factory default
settings. This will delete all data on the computer. Repeat steps 1 and 2, then continue with
step 4 below:
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix E – Resetting the Computer
270
4. Press the ..Y.. key. The following message flashes, indicating that the computer was
initialized and all memory contents are deleted.
************************
* *
* ALL CLEAR *
* *
************************
5. Press any key. The following display appears:
RUN MODE
>
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix F – System Bus
271
APPENDIX F: SYSTEM BUS
The PC-850V(S) provides a system bus for direct access to the 8-bit processor. Access to the
system bus in on the right side of the computer.
Note: Depending on the battery power, the voltage at Vcc will be between 4-6V.
Since the computer consists of CMOS components, the CMOS standard
levels must be maintained.
TOP
BOTTOM
Signal
Pin
Pin
Signal
Vcc
1
2
Vcc
M1
3
4
MREQ
IORQ
5
6
IORESET
WAIT
7
8
INT1
WR
9
10
RD
BNK1
11
12
BNK0
CEROM2
13
14
CERAM2
D7
15
16
D6
D5
17
18
D4
D3
19
20
D2
D1
21
22
D0
A15
23
24
A14
A13
25
26
A12
A11
27
28
A10
A9
29
30
A8
A7
31
32
A6
A5
33
34
A4
A3
35
36
A2
A1
37
38
A0
GND
39
40
GND
TOP
BOTTOM
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix G – Kanji Conversion Chart
273
APPENDIX G: KANJI CONVERSION CHART
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix G - Kanji Conversion Chart
274
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix I – Memory Map
275
APPENDIX H: CHARACTER CODE TABLE
This table shows characters and their corresponding character codes used with the CHR$ and
ASC commands. Each character code consists of 2 hexadecimal characters (or 8 binary bits).
Example:
"A" = hexadecimal "41", decimal "65" and bin "01000001".
"P" = hexadecimal "50", decimal "80", and bin "01010000".
0
16
32
48
64
80
96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
0
0
0
@
P
‘
p
ｰ
ﾀ
ﾐ
1
1
!
1
A
Q
a
q
｡
ｱ
ﾁ
ﾑ
円
2
2
"
2
B
R
b
r
｢
ｲ
ﾂ
ﾒ
3
3
#
3
C
S
c
s
｣
ｳ
ﾃ
ﾓ
月
4
4
$
4
D
T
d
t
､
ｴ
ﾄ
ﾔ
日
5
5
%
5
E
U
e
u
･
ｵ
ﾅ
ﾕ
6
6
&
6
F
V
f
v
ｦ
ｶ
ﾆ
ﾖ
7
7
'
7
G
W
g
w
ｧ
ｷ
ﾇ
ﾗ
8
8
(
8
H
X
h
x
ｨ
ｸ
ﾈ
ﾘ
”
9
9
)
9
I
Y
i
y
ｩ
ｹ
ﾉ
ﾙ
10
A
*
:
J
Z
j
z
ｪ
ｺ
ﾊ
ﾚ
11
B
+
;
K
[
k
{
ｫ
ｻ
ﾋ
ﾛ
12
C
,
<
L
¥
l
|
ｬ
ｼ
ﾌ
ﾜ
13
D
-
=
M
]
m
}
ｭ
ｽ
ﾍ
ﾝ
14
E
.
>
N
^
n
~
ｮ
ｾ
ﾎ
ﾞ
15
F
/
?
O
_
o
ｯ
ｿ
ﾏ
ﾟ
Note: When printing with the CE-126P, the characters with the codes 129
(&H81) – 159 (&H9F), 224 (&HE0) – 231 (&HE7), 236 (&HEC) – 240
(&HF0), 245 (&HF5) – 248 (&HF8) are printed as spaces.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix I – Memory Map
277
APPENDIX I: MEMORY MAP
Memory Area:
0000H
Header
0000 – 00FF
Machine code area
0100 – [7FFE,7FFF]-1
0100H
Program Files Area
(RAM Disk)
[7FFE, 7FFF] -
Data files
TEXT area
[7973,7974] – [7975,7976]
BASIC program
area
[79E1,79E2] – [79E3, 79E4]
Variable area
Workspace
Fixed variables
Workspace
8000H
Stack area
[79FC, 79FD] – 77DF
ROM BANK0
(System ROM)
77E0 – 7FFF
C000H
ROM BANK1
BASIC ROM
ROM
BANK2
ROM
BANK3
FFFFH
Note: Addresses in brackets represent the address in which the respective current
memory position is stored.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
279
APPENDIX J: ROM ADDRESSES
ROM Routines
Confirmed Addresses
Address
OpCode
Description
84F7
Roll the screen one line up.
871A
Initialize the serial interface (11-pin)
9249
Jumps to an address in a particular bank following the CALL
statement
BCBE
STAT
Call STAT mode
BCDF
Reads a byte from the active serial interface to A (wait a
short baud-rate-dependent time for the start bit)
BCE2
Reads a byte from the serial interface to A (waits for the start
bit indefinitely)
BCE5
Reads a byte from the active serial interface to A (waits for
the start bit indefinitely)
BCE8
Open (OPEN) the serial interface (11-pin)
BCEB
Close (CLOSE) the serial interface (11-pin)
BCEE
Add CR / LF to the file pointed to by HL
BCFI
CLRBAS
Starts the routine for “BASIC DELETE OK?”
BCF7
CLRTXT
Starts the routine for “TEXT DELETE OK?”
BCFD (88C1) GETCHR
Reads a character from the keyboard into register A.
BD00
LDPSTR
Reads pixel string from position x, y of length B to address
from HL (x position in E, y position in D). x = 0-5 and y = 0-
23. 1 byte encodes 7 pixels and 5 bytes a character.
BD03
REGOUT
Displays values of all processor registers and waits for
keystroke
BD09
AOUT
Displays value of the A-register and then waits for entry.
BD0F
HLOUT
Displays value of HL register and then waits for entry.
BD15
Reads an ASCII string from the serial interface to HL until
EOF, EOL or an error (SCF) is detected.
BD2D
OFF
Power off (turns off the calculator)
BE53 (89BE)
INKEY
Tests if a key has been pressed and writes the key to A
(INKEY function). A = 0 No key pressed. A = 52 several
keys were pressed simultaneously (carry flag is set when a
key was pressed)
BE62 (8440)
PUTCHR
Returns the character in register A. DE defines the x, y
position (x-position in E, y-position in D)
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
280
Address
OpCode
Description
BE65
INSLN
Creates a blank line at the x, y position (in DE) (x position in
E, y position in D)
BFAF
Writes the contents of register A to the serial interface
BFB2
Writes a string from HL to the serial interface. The transfer
will be terminated when the character ZERO is received.
BFCD
Reads a character from the keyboard into register A. (wait
until a key is pressed)
BFD0
Writes a pixel string whose address is in HL with the length
B. The output starts from the x, y positions in DE (x position
in E, y position in D)? X = 0-5 and y = 0-23. 1 byte encodes
7 pixels and 5 bytes a character. In contrast to the routines
BFEE and BFF1, there is no line break
BFEE
Returns the character in A from position x, y in DE B times
in succession. X = 0-5 and y = 0-23
BFF1
Display string of length B from address HL with x-y position
in DE. If necessary, the string is wrapped at the end of the
line and at the end of the display the LCD is scrolled up (the
same behavior also with BFEE)
BFF4
Calling the RUN mode
C110
Power Off
BASIC Routines (Unconfirmed):
Address
Command Description
C065
Initialize RAM (0000-003F)
C0FD
Ask if the memory should be cleared.
D7C3
HL points to the basic byte. The token string is passed in DE
F9BD
Converts the contents of register A to 2 hex numbers pointing to
the HL
FFF7
Decodes Basic Byte in B. Returns the length in A and the address
of the string in DE
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
281
Other Addresses (Unconfirmed)
Address
Description
0000
Jump to BFFA
0030
Jump to BD03
0038
RET
0066
RETN
USER area + 1A
Beginning of the ram disk (in MONITOR USER is changeable (default
USER = FF) The file length (always 8 + 8 bytes) in the ram disk is in
the two bytes after the filename
779C
Contrast. A change does not immediately cause the display to change.
Example: 10 PRINT "now:"; PEEK (& H779C)
20 INPUT "change (0-31):"; A
30 POKE & H779C, A
40 OUT & H40, & H80 + A
50 GOTO 10
77E0
Start the system RAM area
7800-78CF
Variable range A-Z: 7800 = Z, 7 bytes each
78E7-78E8
Start address of the IO buffer
78EC
SIO Transmission mode bits:
Bit 7: is received char EOT
Bit 6: EOL matches (is complete)
Bit 5: previous what CR
Bit 4: check for EOL
78ED
Baud rate: 0x1 = 300, 0x2 = 600, 0x4 = 1200, 0x8 = 2400, 0x10 =
4800, 0x20 = 9600
- highest bit starting from bit 5 is relevant. all bits 0 ==> 300 baud
78EE
Parameters of the serial interface:
Bit2: add -> CR, else if Bit0 add -> LF else add -> CRLF
Bit 1: (set for CR LF)
Bit 3: unused
Bit 4: 1 + Bit 4 stop bits
Bit 5: 0 = Odd 1 = Even parity if parity enabled
Bit 6: 0 = no parity 1 = parity check / generation enabled
Bit 7: 7 + Bit7 Data bits
78EF
Byte for the identification of the transmission end (EOT)
78F0
Auto power-off Pointer
7900
current bank ID mapped to C000-FFFF
7901-7904
Screen display annunciators:
7901: 00000111
| | +-Always
|+---CAPS
+----Cana
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
282
Address
Description
790D
VRAM display start position. first LCD row offset (0-7) [enables
simple scrolling]
790E
Number of the last selected file in the ram disk
7912-7913
Beginning entry first file in the Ram disk (name)
7921
Current cursor line (0-3)
7922
Current cursor column (0-23)
7932
current interrupt mask at port 17H.
7966
INKEY1, keyboard code query, see Key Matrix
7973-7974
start text area
7975-7976
end text area
79B3-79B4
basic pointer
79B5-79B6
basic line being processed
79B9
current basic byte code
79C0-79C7
password
79E1-79E2
initial executable basic program
79E3-79E4
end executable basic Program
79FC-79FD
Lower end Basic variable area RAMTOP
79FE-79FF
Start executable basic program.
7A60-7A77
last line CAL calculation result
7A80-7A98
last CAL calculation result (exact to 11 digits)
7AA0-7AA1
program pointer
7AA2-7AA3
program pointer
7AA6-7AA7
currently used variable (?)
7AB6-7AB7
FOR pointer (?)
7AB8 -7AB9
variable pointer
7AC8-7AC9
FOR pointer
7ACA-7ACB
variable pointer
7ADC-7ADD
variable pointer
7B00-7B5F
sign in the (monitor) display
7BB0-7BC7
Display line CAL
7C00-7CFF
Input buffer, evaluated
7E00-7ED5
Basic string buffer
7E00-7ED5:
INKEY2, ASCII value like INKEY $
7EE8-
Line of input
7F40-7F4B
LCD line scratch data (12 characters)
7FFD-
TOP of Stack (decreased by PUSH) at most 178 bytes
7FFE-7FFF
address of first non-USER range, i.e. here USER + 1 is stored
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
283
Display Control Ports 40h, 41h:
Low-level control of the LCD is via two ports:
40h = Control-Port
41h = Data-Port
The resolution of the LCD for cursor positioning is 144x6 (144 columns and 6 rows). The
rows have text resolution, the columns have graphic resolution.
The top left corner of the LCD is assigned coordinates (0,0). A vertical bit pattern (1 byte) in
GPRINT format can used to a set cursor position through port 41h (bit 0 = lowest pixel, bit 7
= highest pixel). Cursor position automatically changes after output with shift of one column
to the right.
This is the fastest way to access the LCD - it is controlled directly by the hardware LCD
driver without accessing VRAM (as with the PC-1600). The latter, however, is easy to
implement.
The control port can also be read. Bit 7 indicates whether the LCD hardware is BUSY. In this
case, you must wait for the next OUT command.
The following values can be written to port 40h:
Value (hex)
Description
Notes
0n
Sets the lower-order nibble of the x-axis
Value range: 0 ≤ n ≤ F
1n
Sets the higher-order nibble of the x-axis
Value range: 0 ≤ n ≤ 8
2n
n = 4 LCD off
n = 5 LCD on
3n
n = CursorBlinkRate
30-3F: from fastest to slowest.
Slowest blink rate still faster
than the standard rate.
40-7F
VRAM display start position
The LCD has 144x48 dots but
there are 144x64 dots in VRAM.
16 vertical points are always
hidden. Example of scrolling:
FOR A = 0 TO 63: OUT &H40,
&H40 + A: NEXT
80-9f
LCD contrast
80–9F: from brightest to darkest.
Usable values are from 80-8F.
Outside this range, no difference
in contrast seen.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
284
Value (hex)
Description
Notes
An
n = 0 mirror mode off
n = 1 mirror mode on
n = 4 all pixels (mask) off
n = 5 all pixels (mask) on
n = 6 inverse off
n = 7 Inverse on
n = 8 Voltage on
n = 9 Reduce voltage
n = E all active pixels off
n = F all active pixels on
Sets display mode
Bn
Sets the y-axis
Value range: 0 ≤ n ≤ 5
Cn
Partially switches on the display.
n = 0 normal display
n = 1 left 16 pixels
n = 2 right 10 pixels, including mode
n = 3 left 32 pixels
n = 4 1 + 2
n = 5 right 42 pixels + mode
Turning on a display draws a
line from the center to the
When the display is turned on, a
line ascending to the center
appears, depending on the left
and right. If bit 8 is set, it is a
line descending to the middle
Dn
No function
En
Unknown
Fn
No function
Example:
Assembler program for setting the cursor position and writing the 8-bit pattern:
DI
LD A, 0 <colLow>
OUT (40H), A
LD A, 1 <colHigh>
OUT (40H), A
LD A, B <row>
OUT (40H), A
LD A, <8bit -pattern>
OUT (41H), A
EI
The corresponding BASIC program:
10 GCURSOR (<colHigh> * 16 + <colLow>, 7 + <row> * 8)
20 GPRINT "<8bit-pattern>"
Example for inverting the display in BASIC:
OUT &H40,&HA7
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
285
Key Matrix
Output 11h, input 10h
Output
Input
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7
)
R–CM
M+
Enter
.
K
U
6
/
*
-
+
M
J
Y
5
9
6
3
=
SPACE
N
H
T
4
8
5
2
.
TAB
B
G
R
3
7
4
1
0
Cana
V
F
E
2
π
INS
CON
ON
CAPS
C
D
W
1
BS
0
;
TXT
X
S
Q
0
P
I
L
BASIC
Z
A
OF
Output 12h, input 10h
Output
Input
7
6
7
CLS
MDF
6
FE
1 / x
5
tan
(
4
log
yx ^
3
ln
x2
2
cos
Ì
1
sin
DEG
0
2ndF
nPr
Example:
10 CLS
20 LINE (7,16) - (18,7), B
30 A = 1
40 GCURSOR (8,15)
50 FOR B = 1 TO 7
60 OUT &H11, A
70 A = A * 2
80 GPRINT INP &H10;
90 NEXT
100 OUT &H11.0
110 FOR B = 1 TO 2
120 OUT &H12, B
130 GPRINT INP &H10;
140 NEXT
150 OUT &H12,0
160 GOTO 30
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
286
BIOS Key Values
High
Low
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F
0
OFF
Q
W
E
R
T
Y
U
A
S
D
F
G
H
J
1
K
Z
X
C
V
B
N
M
,
BASIC TEXT CAPS
TAB SPACE
2
ANS
0
.
=
+
RETURN
L
;
CONST
1
2
3
-
3
M+
I
O
INS
4
5
6
*
R-CM
P
BS
π
7
8
9
/
4
)
nPr DEG x2
yx ^
(
1 / x
MDF
2ndF
sin
cos
ln
log
tan
FE
5
CLS ON
+80h when pressing the shift key
52h When two or more keys are pressed
Conversion of BEEP Command Values to Tones:
Format: BEEP repeat [, level] [, length]
Repeat : number of beep tones. 0 to 65535
Level
: Frequency of the buzzer. 230Hz ~ 8kHz (0 ~ 255). Optional.
Length : Duration of the sound. 0 to 65535, optional. Length can be calculated by the
following equation: 1300000 / (166 +22 * level) Hz
C
C+
D
D+
E
F
F+
G
G+
A
A+
B
7
21
18
15
14
12
10
8
49
46
43
40
37
35
30
26
22
105
99
93
87
82
77
72
68
64
60
56
52
219
200
194
182
172
162
152
143
135
127
119
112
246
232
Example:
10 DATA 105,93,82,77,68,60,52,49
20 FOR A = 1 TO 8
30 READ B
40 C = 650000 / (166 + 22 * B)
50 BEEP 1, B, C
60 EXT
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
287
Self-Test Mode
The following menu appears when you execute OUT &H69,6:
* PC-G850V V1.03 CHECK *
1:TOTAL 2:RAM
3:ROM 4:11PIN
5:LCD 6:KEY
7:SHOCK 8:AGING
9:L.B,ESD 0:CURRENT
Caution: Functions may clear the computer memory.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix J – ROM Addresses
288
BASIC Code Table
F
E
D
C
B
A
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
High
Low
CHR$
ASC
EOF
RND
FACT
MDF
PAINT
PRINT
CLS
DIM
CSAVE
RUN
0
STR$
VAL
AND
LN
REC
OUTPUT
INPUT
LOCATE
CALL
OPEN
NEW
1
HEX$
LEN
LOF
OR
LOG
POL
APPEND
GOSUB
TO
POKE
CLOSE
CONT
2
DMS$
VDEG
NOT
EXP
AS
LNINPUT
STEP
GPRINT
SAVE
PASS
3
PEEK
SQR
LPRINT
THEN
PSET
LIST
4
XOR
SIN
RETURN
ON
OUT
PRESET
RANDOMIZE
LLIST
5
MOD
NCR
INP
COS
TEN
ELSE
RESTORE
IF
DEGREE
CLOAD
6
FIX
NPR
TAN
RCP
FOR
RADIAN
RENUM
7
PIOSET
INT
SQR
GCURSOR
LET
PIOSET
GRAD
LOAD
8
INKEY$
ABS
CUR
LINE
REM
PIOPUT
BEEP
9
MID$
SGN
HSN
WHILE
END
SPOUT
ERASE
WAIT
A
LEFT$
DEG
HCS
WEND
NEXT
SPINP
LFILES
GOTO
DELETE
B
DMS
HTN
SWITCH
STOP
HDCOPY
KILL
GRON
FILES
C
RIGHT$
POINT
ASN
AHS
CASE
READ
ENDIF
TROFF
D
PI
ACS
AHC
DEFAULT
DATA
REPEAT
CLEAR
E
CUB
FRE
ATN
AHT
ENDSWITCH
CIRCLE
UNTIL
USING
LCOPY
MON
F
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix K – Error Messages
289
APPENDIX K: ERROR MESSAGES
If an error in BASIC occurs, one of the following codes will be displayed. For errors that
occur during program execution, the line number where the error occurred is also displayed.
Error code
Description
10
Syntax error.
12
Illegal command for specified mode (RUN/PRO).
13
Illegal CONT command.
14
Program does not exist for PASSWORD.
15
Illegal address for BSAVE M.
20
Overflow error (>10100).
21
Divide by zero.
22
Illegal operation.
30
Array already assigned.
31
Undimensioned array.
32
Array index overflow.
33
Out of range error.
40
Name/line number nonexistent.
41
Illegal line number.
43
Error with RENUM/LCOPY
44
End line < start line
50
Stack depth exceeded (for GOSUB, FOR, REPEAT, WHILE, and SWITCH)
51
Missing GOTO.
52
Missing NEXT.
53
Missing READ.
54
Buffer overflow.
55
String/line > 255 bytes.
60
Out of memory.
61
Missing ENDIF
62
Missing REPEAT.
63
Missing WEND.
64
Missing WEND.
66
Extra CASE/DEFAULT statement.
68
Missing ENDSWITCH.
69
Missing SWITCH.
70
Cannot print with current USING format.
71
Illegal USING format.
72
I / O error.
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix K – Error Messages
290
Error code
Description
77
File overflow.
80
Checksum error.
81
Timeout error.
82
Type mismatch error with BLOAD
83
Type mismatch error with INPUT#
84
Printer error
85
Device/file not opened before use
86
Device/file number already in use.
87
End of file.
90
Type mismatch error.
91
Type mismatch error.
92
Incorrect password.
93
Password protected
94
File not found
95
Illegal file name.
96
File type mismatch (BASIC vs. TEXT)
97
Greater than 255 files
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix L – Z80 Programming Reference
291
APPENDIX L: Z80 PROGRAMMING REFERENCE
This chapter summarizes the instructions for the Z80 processor. It does not replace a manual
for Z80 programming. It should only serve as a reference.
Z80 registers and flags
The Z80 has various 8-bit and 16-bit registers. During execution, some 8-bit registers merge
into 16-bit registers (which can easily be recognized by the register names).
8-bit registers
: A, B, C, D, E, H, L
16-bit registers
: IX, IY, BC, DE, HL
The Z80 processor provides duplicates of the 8-bit registers so you have a pair of registers
available. With one command you can exchange register assignments.
The Z80 also has a number of flags. Flags are 1-bit registers in which current states can be
displayed. The flags are held in the F-register (from bit 7-0):
S : sign flag (1 if negative)
Z : zero flag (1 if result 0)
H : auxiliary flag (also called half-carry flag)
P : parity flag (1 if overflow)
N : subtraction flag (1 if subtraction in accumulator)
C : carry flag (carry flag or CY, 1 if overflow)
S
Z
H
P/V
N
C
Sign
Carry
Zero
Add/subtract
5th bit of last
Parity/overflow
Half-carry
3rd bit of last
Z80 Instruction set
Abbreviations
r, r’
8-bit registers A, B, C, D, E, H, L
dd
16-bit registers BC, DE, HL, SP
qq
16-bit registers AF, BC, DE, HL
pp
16-bit registers BC, DE, SP
n
8-bit constant
nn
16-bit constant, address
d
Offset for indirect addressing in the range -128 to 127
b
Bit to be used in single-bit instructions 0 ≤ b ≤ 7
m, M Contents of memory addressed by HL (L contains bits 0-7; H bits 8-15
p
Value of 00h, 08h, 10h, 18h, 20h, 28h, 30h, or 38h
CY
Carry flag
T
Number of clock cycles
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix L – Z80 Programming Reference
292
8-bit Load Instructions
These instructions move 8-bit data between registers or between registers and memory. The
first argument in the operand field is the destination address and the second is the source. The
contents of the source address are not changed.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
LD r, r’
4 load register r’ into register r
------
LD r, n
7 load constant n into register r
------
LD r, m
7 load memory addressed by HL into register r
------
LD r, (IX + d)
19 load memory addressed by IX + offset d into register r
------
LD r, (IY + d)
19 load memory addressed by IY + offset d into register r
------
LD m, r
7 load register r into memory addressed by HL
------
LD (IX + d), r
19 load register r into memory addressed by IX + offset d
------
LD (IY + d), r
19 load register r into memory addressed by IY + offset d
------
LD m, n
10 load constant n into memory addressed by HL
------
LD (IX + d), n 19 load constant n into memory addressed by IX + offset d
------
LD (IY + d), n 19 load constant n into memory addressed by IY + offset d
------
LD A, (BC)
7 load memory addressed by register BC into register A
(accumulator)
------
LD A, (DE)
7 load memory addressed by register DE into register A
(accumulator)
------
LD A, (nn)
13 load memory addressed by nn into register A
(accumulator)
------
LD (BC), A
7 load register A (accumulator) into memory addressed by
register BC
------
LD (DE), A
7 load register A (accumulator) into memory addressed by
register DE
------
LD (nn), A
13 load register A (accumulator) into memory addressed by
nn
------
LD A, I
9 load register I (interrupt) into register A (accumulator)
**0F0-
LD A, R
9 load register R (refresh) into register A (accumulator)
**0F0-
LD I, A
9 load register A (accumulator) into register I (interrupt)
------
LD R, A
9 load register A (accumulator) into register R (refresh)
------
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16-bit Load Instructions
These instructions move 16-bit data between registers or between registers and memory. The
first argument in the operand field is the destination address and the second is the source. The
contents of the source address are not changed.
Special 16-bit instructions include the PUSH and POP. 16-bit data from double registers can
be pushed into the stack or taken back to the double register.
All 16-bit data is stored in Intel (little-endian) order (least significant byte first).
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
LD dd, nn
10 load constant nn into double register
------
LD IX, nn
14 load constant nn into index register IX
------
LD IY, nn
14 load constant nn into index register IY
------
LD HL, (nn) 16 load memory addressed by nn, nn+1 into double register HL
(nnL, nn+1H)
------
LD pp, (nn) 20 load memory addressed by nn, nn+1 into double register pp
(nnL, nn+1H)
------
LD IX, (nn) 20 load memory addressed by nn, nn+1 into double register IX
(nnX, nn+1I)
------
LD IY, (nn) 20 load memory addressed by nn, nn+1 into double register HL
(nnY, nn + 1I)
------
LD (nn), HL 16 load contents of double register HL into addresses nn, nn + 1
(Lnn, Hnn+1)
------
LD (nn), pp 20 load contents of double register pp into addresses nn, nn + 1
(Lnn, Hnn+1)
------
LD (nn), IX 20 load contents of double register IX into addresses nn, nn + 1
(Xnn, Inn+1)
------
LD (nn), I
20 load contents of double register IY into addresses nn, nn + 1
(Ynn, Inn+1)
------
LD SP, HL
6 load double register HL into SP (stack pointer)
------
LD SP, IX
10 load double register IX into SP (stack pointer)
------
LD SP, IY
10 load double register IY into SP (stack pointer)
------
PUSH qq
11 load double register qq into the stack
DEC SP; LD (SP), H; DEC SP; LD (SP), L
------
PUSH IX
15 load double register IX into the stack
DEC SP; LD (SP), I; DEC SP; LD (SP), X
------
PUSH IY
15 load double register IY into the stack
DEC SP; LD (SP), I; DEC SP; LD (SP), Y
------
POP qq
10 load last value on the stack into double register qq
LD L, (SP); INC SP; LD H, (SP); INC SP
------
POP IX
14 load last value on the stack into double register IX
LD X, (SP); INC SP; LD I, (SP); INC SP
------
POP IY
14 load last value on the stack into double register IY
LD Y, (SP); INC SP; LD I, (SP); INC SP
------
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8-bit Arithmetic and Logic Instructions
These instructions work with the accumulator (A register) and other registers or memory
addresses. The result of these instructions is stored in the accumulator (A register).
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
ADD r
4 add register r to the accumulator
***V0*
ADD m
7 add memory addressed by register HL to the accumulator
***V0*
ADD n
7 add constant n to the accumulator
***V0*
ADD (IX + d) 19 add memory addressed by register IX + offset d to the
accumulator
***V0*
ADD (IY + d) 19 add memory addressed by register IX + offset d to the
accumulator
***V0*
ADC r
4 add register r + carry flag to the accumulator
***V0*
ADC m
7 add memory addressed by m + carry flag to the
accumulator
***V0*
ADC n
7 add constant n + carry flag to the accumulator content
***V0*
ADC (IX + d) 19 add contents of memory addressed by register IX + offset d
and carry flag to the accumulator
***V0*
ADC (IY + d) 19 add contents of memory addressed by register IY + offset d
and carry flag to the accumulator
***V0*
SUB r
4 subtract contents of register r from the accumulator
***V1*
SUB m
7 subtract memory addressed by register HL from the
accumulator
***V1*
SUB n
7 subtract constant n from the accumulator
***V1*
SUB (IX + d)
19 subtract memory addressed by register IX + offset d from
the accumulator
***V1*
SUB (IY + d)
19 subtract memory addressed by register IY + offset d from
the accumulator
***V1*
SBC r
4 subtract register r + carry flag from the accumulator
***V1*
SBC m
7 subtract memory addressed by m + carry flag from the
accumulator
***V1*
SBC n
7 subtract constant n + carry flag from the accumulator
***V1*
SBC (IX + d)
19 subtract memory addressed by IX + offset d and carry flag
from the accumulator
***V1*
SBC (IY + d)
19 subtract memory addressed by IY + offset d and carry flag
from the accumulator
***V1*
AND r
4 logical AND of register r and the accumulator
**1p00
AND m
7 logical AND of memory addressed m and the accumulator
**1p00
AND n
7 logical AND of constant n and the accumulator
**1p00
AND (IX + d) 19 logical AND of memory addressed by register IX + offset d
and the accumulator
**1p00
AND (IY + d) 19 logical AND of memory addressed by register IY + offset d
and the accumulator
**1p00
OR r
4 logical OR of register r and the accumulator
**0p00
OR m
7 logical OR of memory addressed m and the accumulator
**0p00
OR n
7 logical OR of constant n and the accumulator
**0p00
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Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
OR (IX + d)
19 logical OR of memory addressed by register IX + offset d
and the accumulator
**0p00
OR (IY + d)
19 logical OR of memory addressed by register IY + offset d
and the accumulator
**0p00
XOR r
4 logical XOR of register r and the accumulator
**0p00
XOR m
7 logical XOR of memory addressed m and the accumulator
**0p00
XOR n
7 logical XOR of constant n and the accumulator
**0p00
XOR (IX + d) 19 logical XOR of memory addressed by register IX + offset d
and the accumulator
**0p00
XOR (IY + d) 19 logical XOR of memory addressed by register IY + offset d
and the accumulator
**0P00
CP r
4
compare register r with accumulator
Zero-Flag: 1 contents are identical
0 contents are different
Carry-Flag: 1 accumulator smaller
0 accumulator equal or greater
***V1*
CP m
7 compare memory addressed by register m with
accumulator
***V1*
CP n
7 compare constant n with accumulator
***V1*
CP (IX + d)
19 compare memory addressed by register IX + offset d with
accumulator
***V1*
CP (IY + d)
19 compare memory addressed by register IY + offset d with
accumulator
***V1*
INC r
4 increase value of register r by one
***V0-
INC m
11 increase value of memory addressed by m by one
***V0-
INC (IX + d)
23 increase value of memory addressed by register IX + offset
by one
***V0-
INC (IY + d)
23 increase value of memory addressed by register IY + offset
by one
***V0-
DEC r
4 decrease value of register r by one
***V1-
DEC m
11 decrease value of memory addressed by m by one
***V1-
DEC (IX + d) 23 decrease value of memory addressed by register IX + offset
by one
***V1-
DEC (IY + d) 23 decrease value of memory addressed by register IY + offset
by one
***V1-
DAA
4 BCD correction of accumulator using flags
***p-*
CPL
4 bitwise 1’s complement of accumulator
--1-1-
NEG
8 subtract the accumulator from zero
(2's complement, bitwise negate, increase by 1)
***V1*
CCF
invert carry flag
--x-0*
SCF
4 Set carry flag to 1
--0-01
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16-bit Arithmetic Instructions
These instructions work similarly to the 8-bit arithmetic instructions, but with double
registers. As the accumulator is not a 16-bit register, HL, IX or IY is used.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
ADD HL, dd 11 add register dd to register HL
--x-0*
ADD IX, IX
15 add register IX to itself (doubling)
--x-0*
ADD IY, IY
15 add register IY to itself (doubling)
--x-0*
ADD IX, pp
15 add register pp to register IX
--x-0*
ADD IY, pp
15 add register pp to register IY
--x-0*
ADC HL, dd 15 add register dd + carry flag to register HL
**xV0*
SBC HL, dd
15 subtract register dd + carry flag to register HL
**xV1*
INC dd
6 increment register dd by one
------
INC IX
10 increment register IX by one
------
INC IY
10 increment register IY by one
------
DEC dd
6 decrement register dd by one
------
DEC IX
10 decrement register IX by one
------
DEC IY
10 decrement register IY by one
------
Register Exchange Instructions
These instructions are used to exchange 16-bit register contents. It also allows backup of
primary registers with their corresponding “shadow” registers.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
EX DE, HL
4 Exchange registers DE and HL
------
EX AF, AF’
4 Exchange registers AF and AF’
------
EXX
4 Exchange registers with shadow registers
BCBC’ DEDE’ HLHL’
------
EX (SP), HL 19 Exchange contents of register HL with last value in the stack
SP+1H, SPL
------
EX (SP), IX
23 Exchange contents of register IX with last value in the stack
SP+1I, SPX
------
EX (SP), IY
23 Exchange contents of register IY with last value in the stack
SP+1I, SPY
------
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Branch Instructions
These include conditional and unconditional jumps. The destination of jumps can be
specified using absolute or relative addressing. Range of relative address is restricted from -
126 to +129 bytes. For conditional jumps, a flag must be specified as an operands and the
corresponding flag bit is tested. Depending on this test, the jump is either executed or
ignored.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
JP nn
10 jump to address nn
------
JP NZ, nn
10 jump to address nn if zero bit cleared (0)
------
JP Z, nn
10 jump to address nn if zero bit set (1)
------
JP NC, nn
10 jump to address nn if carry bit cleared (0)
------
JP C, nn
10 jump to address nn if carry bit set (1)
------
JP PO, nn
10 jump to address nn if parity/overflow bit cleared (0)
------
JP PE, nn
10 jump to address nn if parity/overflow bit set (1)
------
JP P, nn
10 jump to address nn if sign bit cleared (0)
------
JP M, nn
10 jump to address nn if sign bit set (1)
------
JR nn
10 jump to relative address nn
------
JR NZ, nn
12 jump to relative address nn if zero bit cleared (0)
------
JR Z, nn
12/7 jump to relative address nn if zero bit set (1)
------
JR NC, nn
12/7 jump to relative address nn if carry bit cleared (0)
------
JR C, nn
12/7 jump to relative address nn if carry bit set (1)
------
JP m
4
jump to address specified by register HL
------
JP (IX)
8
jump to address specified by register IX
------
JP (IY)
8
jump to address specified by register IY
------
DJNZ nn
13/8 decrement register B and jump to relative address nn if B0
------
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Subroutines
As with the jump instructions, there are conditional and unconditional instructions. The
subroutine call operates by storing the return address following the CALL command on the
stack. If the subroutine is terminated with the RET command, the return address is loaded
from the stack and execution continues from the return address.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
CALL nn
17
call subroutine at address nn
------
CALL NZ, nn 17/10 call subroutine at address nn if zero flag cleared (0)
------
CALL Z, nn
17/10 call subroutine at address nn if zero flag set (1)
------
CALL NC, nn 17/10 call subroutine at address nn if carry flag cleared (0)
------
CALL C, nn
17/10 call subroutine at address nn if carry flag set (1)
------
CALL PO, nn 17/10 call subroutine at address nn if parity/overflow flag cleared (0)
------
CALL PE, nn 17/10 call subroutine at address nn if parity/overflow flag set (1)
------
CALL P, nn
17/10 call subroutine at address nn if sign flag cleared (0)
------
CALL M, nn
17/10 call subroutine at address nn if sign flag set (1)
------
RST p
11
call subroutine at restart address
(valid addresses: 00h, 08h, 10h, 18h, 20h, 28h, 30h, 38h.)
------
RET
10
unconditional return from a subroutine
------
RET NZ
11/5 return from subroutine if zero flag cleared (0)
------
RET Z
11/5 return from subroutine if zero flag set (1)
------
RET NC
11/5 return from subroutine if carry flag cleared (0)
------
RET C
11/5 return from subroutine if carry flag set (1)
------
RET PO
11/5 return from subroutine if parity/overflow flag cleared (0)
------
RET PE
11/5 return from subroutine if parity/overflow flag set (1)
------
RET P
11/5 return from subroutine if sign flag cleared (0)
------
RET M
11/5 return from subroutine if sign flag set (1)
------
RETI
14
return from interrupt
------
RETN
14
return from non-maskable interrupt
------
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Shift Instructions
These instructions allows bitwise shifting of values in the accumulator (A-register), register,
or in memory. The bit shifted out of the byte is stored in the carry flag.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
RLCA
4 rotate accumulator one bit to the left, bit 7 becomes bit 0
--0-0*
RRCA
4 rotate accumulator one bit to the right, bit 0 becomes bit 7
--0-0*
RLA
4 rotate accumulator one bit to the left, bit 7 becomes the carry
flag and the carry flag becomes bit 0
--0-0*
RRA
4 rotate accumulator one bit to the right, bit 0 becomes the
carry flag and the carry flag becomes bit 7
--0-0*
RLC r
8 rotate register r one bit to the left, bit 7 becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RLC m
15 rotate memory addressed by register m one bit to the left, bit
7 becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RLC (IX + d) 23 rotate memory addressed by register IX + offset d one bit to
the left, bit 7 becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RLC (IY + d) 23 rotate memory addressed by register IY + offset d one bit to
the left, bit 7 becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RRC r
8 rotate register r one bit to the right, bit 0 becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RRC m
15 rotate memory addressed by register m one bit to the right, bit
0 becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RRC (IX + d) 23 rotate memory addressed by register IX + offset d one bit to
the right, bit 0 becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RRC (IY + d) 23 rotate memory addressed by register IY + offset d one bit to
the right, bit 0 becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RL r
8 rotate register r one bit to the left, bit 7 becomes the carry flag
and the carry flag becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RL m
15 rotate memory addressed by register m one bit to the left, bit
7 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RL (IX + d)
23
rotate memory addressed by register IX + offset d one bit to
the left, bit 7 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag
becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RL (IY + d)
23
rotate memory addressed by register IY + offset d one bit to
the left, bit 7 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag
becomes bit 0
**0p0*
RR r
8 rotate register r one bit to the right, bit 0 becomes the carry
flag and the carry flag becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RR m
15 rotate memory addressed by register m one bit to the right, bit
0 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag becomes bit 7
**0p0*
RR (IX + d)
23
rotate memory addressed by register IX + offset d one bit to
the right, bit 0 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag
becomes bit 7
**0p0*
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix L – Z80 Programming Reference
300
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
RR (IY + d)
23
rotate memory addressed by register IY + offset d one bit to
the right, bit 0 becomes the carry flag and the carry flag
becomes bit 7
**0p0*
SLA r
8 arithmetic shift left register r one bit, bit 7 becomes the carry
flag, bit 0 is 0.
**0p0*
SLA m
15 arithmetic shift left memory addressed by register m one bit,
bit 7 becomes the carry flag, bit 0 is 0.
**0p0*
SLA (IX + d) 23 arithmetic shift left memory addressed by register IX + offset
d one bit, bit 7 becomes the carry flag, bit 0 is 0.
**0p0*
SLA (IY + d) 23 arithmetic shift left memory addressed by register IY + offset
d one bit, bit 7 becomes the carry flag, bit 0 is 0.
**0p0*
SRA r
8 arithmetic shift right register r one bit, bit 0 becomes the
carry flag, bit 7 is unchanged.
**0p0*
SRA m
15 arithmetic shift right memory addressed by register HL one
bit, bit 0 becomes the carry flag, bit 7 is unchanged.
**0p0*
SRA (IX + d) 23
arithmetic shift right memory addressed by register IX +
offset d one bit, bit 0 becomes the carry flag, bit 7 is
unchanged.
**0p0*
SRA (IY + d) 23
arithmetic shift right memory addressed by register IY +
offset d one bit, bit 0 becomes the carry flag, bit 7 is
unchanged.
**0p0*
RLD
18
4-bit leftward rotation of a 12-bit number whose 4 most
significant bits are the 4 least significant bits of register A
(accumulator) and its 8 least significant bits are in register HL
**0p0*
RRD
18
4-bit rightward rotation of a 12-bit number whose 4 most
significant bits are the 4 least significant bits of register A
(accumulator) and its 8 least significant bits are in register HL
**0p0*
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Bit Commands
These instructions allow the testing, setting or deletion individual bits in registers or in
memory.
Instructions
T
Operation
SZHPNC
BIT b, r
8 test bit b in register r, the inverse of bit b is written to the Z
flag.
x*1x0-
BIT b, m
12 test bit b in memory addressed by m, the inverse of bit b is
written to the Z flag.
x*1x0-
BIT b, (IX+d)
20 test bit b in memory addressed by IX + offset d, the inverse
of bit b is written to the Z flag.
x*1x0-
BIT b, (IY+d)
20 test bit b in memory addressed by IY + offset d, the inverse
of bit b is written to the Z flag.
x*1x0-
SET b, r
8 set bit b in register r
------
SET b, m
12 set bit b in memory addressed by m
------
SET b, (IX+d)
20 set bit b in memory addressed by IX + offset d
------
SET b, (IY+d)
20 set bit b in memory addressed by IY + offset d
------
RES b, r
8 clear bit b in register r
------
RES b, m
12 clear bit b in memory addressed by m
------
RES b, (IX+d) 20 clear bit b in memory addressed by IX + offset d
------
RES b, (IY+d) 20 clear bit b in memory addressed by IY + offset d
------
CPU Commands
These instructions control the CPU interrupts.
Instructions
T
Operation
SZHPNC
NOP
4
no operation
------
STOP
4
executes NOP instructions until interrupt or RESET
------
DI
4
disables interrupts in mode 1 and mode 2
------
EGG
4
enables interrupts in mode 1 and mode 2
------
IM 0
8
set interrupt mode 0 (external)
------
IM 1
8
set interrupt mode 1 (OS)
------
IM 2
8
set interrupt mode 2 (user)
------
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Copy/Compare
These instructions can copy blocks of memory or search for a particular byte. The search
ends when the byte is found or the end of the memory area has been reached.
Instruction
T
Operation
SZHPNC
LDI
16
copies from memory addressed by HL to memory addressed
by DE, increments HL and DE, decrement BC
if BC = 0 P = 0
if BC ≠ 0 P = 1
--0*0-
LDIR
21 repeats LDI until BC = 0
--000-
LDD
16
copies from the memory addressed by HL to memory
addressed by DE, decrement registers DE, HL and BC
if BC = 0 P = 0
if BC ≠ 0 P = 1
--0*0-
LDDR
21 repeats LDD until BC = 0
--000-
CPI
16
compare memory addressed by HL with register A
(accumulator)
if A = (HL) Z = 1
if A ≠ (HL) Z = 0, increment HL, decrement BC
if BC = 0 P = 0
if BC ≠ 0 P = 1
****1-
CPIR
21 repeats CPI until BC = 0 or A = (HL)
****1-
CPD
16
compare memory addressed by HL with register A
(accumulator)
if A = (HL) Z = 1
if A ≠ (HL) Z = 0, decrement HL, BC
if BC = 0 P = 0
if BC ≠ 0 P = 1
****1-
CPDR
21 repeat CPD until BC = 0 or A = (HL)
****1-
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Input/Output
These instructions allow for the exchange of data between registers/memory with external
blocks. The external block is accessed via a port address (8-bit value). Depending on the
instruction, this port address is either specified directly (as a constant) or located in register
C. Similar to copy, instructions for transferring blocks of memory are available.
If the C register is used for addressing, the B register is used to hold the more significant bits
of the address bus.
Instructions
T
Operation
SZHPNC
IN A, (n)
11 reads from hardware port (n) to the accumulator
------
IN r, (C)
12 reads from hardware port in register C to register r
**0P0-
INI
16
reads hardware port (C) and writes the result to memory
addressed by HL, increment HL, decrement B
if B = 0 Z = 1 otherwise Z = 0
x*xx1-
INIR
21 repeat INI instruction until register B = 0
x1xx1-
IND
16
reads hardware port (C) and writes the result to memory
address HL, decrement HL, B
if B = 0 Z = 1 otherwise Z = 0
x*xx1-
INDR
21 repeat IND instruction until register B = 0
x1xx1-
OUT (n), A 11 writes accumulator to hardware port (n)
------
OUT (C), r
12 writes memory addressed by r to hardware port (C)
------
OUTI
16
reads memory addressed by HL and writes the result to
hardware port (C), increment HL, decrement B
if B = 0 Z = 1 otherwise Z = 0
x*xx1-
OTIR
21 repeat OUTI instruction until register B = 0
x1xx1-
OUTD
16
reads memory addressed by HL and writes the result to
hardware port (C), decrement HL, B
if B = 0 Z = 1 otherwise Z = 0
x*xx1-
OTDR
21 repeat OUTD instruction until register B = 0
x1xx1-
SHARP PC-G850V(S) USERS GUIDE: Appendix M – Installing a Speaker
305
APPENDIX M: INSTALLING A SPEAKER
The PC-G850V (S) has a connector for attaching a speaker. These connections are marked
with BZ+ and BZ-. Here the piezo is soldered and attached to the housing with double-sided
tape.
Note: The previous models do not have these two connections. In this case, the
cables must be connected directly to the 11-pin interface. (Pin 3 (FL3) and
pin 7 (FL7).
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
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